Expectations and preferences of clients for a university student counseling service.

Investigated the relation between preferences and expectations about counselors in a university student counseling service in a population of 100 student clients before their initial intake session. Compared with results from an earlier study on nonclients, preferences and expectations were more congruent in clients. Both clients and nonclients, however, preferred a more active counselor who promotes cognitive and behavioral change and expels symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A methodological note: Do students expect what clients do?

Research on expectations about counseling is complicated by use of noncomparable measurement techniques, varied definitions, and nonclient samples. The Expectations About Counseling (EAC) is an instrument that has been used in several studies and may help standardize research on expectations. The present study used the short form of the EAC to compare expectations of 78 university student nonclients, student clients, and nonstudent clients. Although no statistically significant differences were found among the groups, results must be viewed with caution. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in preferences for male and female counselors

Past studies have indicated a preference for male therapists among both client and nonclient samples. To test for possible changes in preferences since the time of these studies, 53 male and 76 female applicants for counseling and 140 male and 150 female nonclient undergraduates completed a university counseling service application form that included a question regarding preference for sex of therapist. Although more clients than nonclients expressed preferences, results from both groups indicate a decrease in male counselor preferences. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stigma of psychological therapy: Stereotypes, interpersonal reactions, and the self-fulfilling prophecy.

Investigated stereotypes of counseling center clients and examined how these preconceptions influence social interaction. 136 undergraduates, told they were participating in a study of the acquaintance process in social interactions, were randomly assigned to be perceivers or targets. Ss engaged in a brief getting-acquainted conversation. Targets were randomly assigned to conditions in which perceivers were told that their conversational partner, the target, had been recruited either from among students seeking psychological therapy (clients) or from students in introductory psychology courses (nonclients). As was predicted, perceivers rated clients less favorably than they did nonclients before they interacted. Futhermore, consistent with previous research on the self-fulfilling prophecy, judges' ratings of the interactions revealed that perceivers behaved more negatively toward clients than toward nonclients, and clients came to behave in a less socially desirable manner than did nonclients. It is suggested that fear of rejection that makes people reluctant to seek psychological therapy appears to be justified. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of perceptions of personal control on reactions to stressful events.

To test the assumption that beliefs of high personal control predispose individuals to greater stress in the face of difficult life events, clients and nonclients holding high, moderate, and low perceptions of personal control completed measures related to the occurrence of stressful events. Ss were a sample of 46 clients and 2 samples of 67 and 145 nonclients, respectively, at a large university. Beliefs of personal control were measured by H. Levenson's (1972) Internality Scale (developed from a revision of Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale). Stress at the time of psychological help-seeking was assessed by comparing clients and nonclients on self-esteem and perceptions of control over recent life events. Ss also indicated the degree of stress they associated with experiences of social isolation and powerlessness. As predicted, high internals generally reported higher stress than moderate or low internals; and high internal clients, in comparison with nonclient controls, reported lower self-esteem, higher stress, and less control over recent events. Low internal clients generally did not behave as predicted. Implications for counseling goals and treatment plans are discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client preferences and anticipations in career counseling: A preliminary investigation.

Client expectations have been studied infrequently in career counseling. This study provides preliminary data about precounseling expectations, which were conceptualized as preferences and anticipations. 92 university students (22 men and 70 women) who sought career counseling completed an open-ended questionnaire. Results suggested the following conclusions: (1) Clients have fairly clear ideas about what they want (preferences) from career counseling and about what the experience should be like; (2) clients are somewhat less certain about what the career counseling experience will actually be like (anticipations) and less optimistic about it; (3) a number of mismatches exist between clients' preferences and anticipations; (4) clients do not have well-developed expectations about their dislikes in career counseling; and (5) few differences are evident between clients who have had previous counseling and those who have not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical knowledge exhibited by clients and nonclients.

Two studies were conducted to explore the relation between (a) experience in counseling and psychotherapy and (b) ethical knowledge. In Study 1, 77 college students reported their experience as clients in a variety of settings and then completed a questionnaire concerning their knowledge of ethical issues. The hypothesis that clients (subjects who had counseling experience) would demonstrate ethical knowledge superior to that of nonclients (those with no such experience) was not supported. Ethical knowledge did not differ as a function of counseling experience, the setting in which counseling was received, or the number of sessions. However, though overall ethical knowledge was high across groups, knowledge with respect to each ethical issue was incomplete. In Study 2, following the same procedure, we compared 17 current psychotherapy clients at a Veterans Administration medical center with 15 nonclients, patients in the hypertension clinic who had never received psychological services. These clients demonstrated superior ethical knowledge on specific issues (.008?ps?     

Counseling expectations of clients and nonclients for group and individual treatment modes.

A questionnaire that measured expectations about counseling was completed by 40 male and 40 female undergraduates under group or individual counseling expectation conditions, 18 males and 27 females who had sought group counseling, and 20 males and 20 females who had sought individual counseling. An additional 22 males and 28 females indicated their attitudes toward the acceptability of group and individual counseling. Results indicate significant differences between the 2 modes, the sexes, and the 2 populations (clients and nonclients); however, no interaction effects were noted. Results are discussed in terms of how differential beliefs about group and individual counseling may affect participation rates and behaviors and how professionals may better promote counseling services. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Situational factors and the relationship between locus of control and psychological adjustment.

Tested a model of psychological adjustment in which increased internality for some college students occurs as a result of regaining control over stressful environmental events as opposed to learning a different generalized perception of their world. In the 1st of 2 experiments, 123 clients and 271 nonclients assessed their locus of control regarding both recent events and what they considered to be characteristic of themselves. Clients reported greater externality than nonclients for the recent condition but no difference in the characteristic condition. In addition, clients reported greater externality recently than characteristically; nonclients reported no difference. Exp II measured the locus of control and manifest anxiety (Bendig's short form of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale) of 23 clients and 24 nonclients at pretreatment and posttreatment under the same 2 conditions as in Exp I. A measure of recent life stress (Holmes Social Readjustment Rating Scale) was also completed. Results support the proposed model. Moreover, stress appeared to act as an interface between characteristic internality and situational externality, with the ability to handle stress, and not the amount of stress experienced, being a possible mediating factor. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring client fears.

Describes the development of a 15-item instrument to measure client fears. 91 clients (mean age 22.6 yrs) and 104 nonclients (mean age 21.2 yrs) in a university setting were asked to rate possible fears about psychotherapy with regard to how much they had been (or would be) concerned about those issues. Analyses revealed 2 factors: Therapist Responsiveness and Image Concerns. Validity of the factors was supported by a multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) that showed significant differences between clients and nonclients. Clients reported significantly less fear for each factor. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor's reputation: An important precounseling variable for adolescents.

The purpose of this research was to determine the precounseling effects of reputational cues on high school students' preferences for counselors and perceptions of the counselor's credibility and interpersonal attractiveness. In two separate but similar experiments, 485 students each saw one of seven experimental conditions presented on videotape. On three videotapes, high school students delivered positive, neutral, or negative reputational cues about a male or a female counselor. Three additional videotapes contained the same positive, neutral, or negative reputational cues and the counselor in a brief counseling session. One videotape featured only the counseling session. Students' preferences for and perceptions of the counselors were significantly different from each other in the positive, neutral, and negative reputational cue conditions. The addition of the counseling session following negative reputational cues resulted in much more positive preferences for and perceptions of the counselors. Reputational cues functioned as an important precounseling variable in that the cues strongly influenced students' preferences and perceptions prior to counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectations and preferences for counselor race and their relation to intermediate treatment outcomes.

The expectations and preferences of 26 White and 8 Black male veterans for the race of their counselor were investigated at the time the clients entered treatment in a midwestern outpatient mental health clinic. In addition, Ss' satisfaction with treatment, measured by a 3-factor self-rating scale and dropout status, were analyzed in relation to Ss' expectations and preferences for counselor race and the racial makeup of the treatment dyad. Results indicate that White and Black clients alike expected their counselor to be White. About half of the White Ss and half of the Blacks indicated that they had no preferences. However, the significant association between race and S preference for counselor race suggests that Ss expressing preferences preferred counselors of their own race. Dropout and satisfaction with treatment were not related to the nature of Ss' racial expectations and preferences or to the racial makeup of the treatment dyads. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counseling psychologists' perceptions of the occurrence and effects of unrealistic expectations about counseling and psychotherapy among their clients.

Surveyed counseling psychologists working in practice settings regarding their perceptions of the occurrence and effects of their clients' unrealistic expectations about counseling. A majority perceived some of their clients as having unrealistically high expectations about the need for concreteness; the likelihood of counselor nurturance, directiveness, and empathy; and the probability of a beneficial outcome. Most responded that some of their clients have unrealistically low expectations about the need for immediacy, motivation, openness, and responsibility, and the likelihood of confrontation. Psychologists view most unrealistic expectations as having a detrimental effect on counseling. Exceptions that can have a facilitative effect on counseling are unrealistically high client expectations about the needs to be motivated and open and to assume personal responsibility and unrealistically low expectations for counselor directiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client preference and expectancy upon the initial interview.

Used a 2 * 3 design with 10 Ss per cell to show how initial counseling interview process and outcome are affected by (a) assigning clients to either more preferred or less preferred counselors; (b) giving clients either positive, nonexistent, or negative expectancy inductions regarding their counselor assignments; and (c) congruence and incongruence between clients' expectations and experiences. Process and outcome were assessed using client and counselor self-report measures and audiotape segment ratings. More preferred assignment conditions received more favorable tape ratings than did less preferred assignment conditions. Positive or no-expectancy conditions revealed a more favorable counseling outcome than did negative expectancy conditions. Most Ss showed increased preferences for counselors seen despite congruence or incongruence between their expectations and experiences. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology Students' Training in the Management of Potentially Violent Clients.

Client violence has been reported as one of student practitioners' greatest concerns. This study examined counseling and clinical psychology graduate students' exposure to client violence, perceptions of training received in managing potentially violent clients, and confidence in working with this population. Students reported that their training in the management of potentially violent clients was inadequate and that their confidence in working with this population was low. A positive correlation between perception of training and confidence in managing potentially violent clients provides support for more comprehensive training efforts for students in the management of potentially violent clients. Training suggestions are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examination of counseling variables within a social learning framework.

Using the framework of J. B. Rotter's social learning theory, it was predicted that the specific and generalized expectancies of 315 college student counseling clients would clarify their counseling goals and would be related to length of time spent in counseling as well as to rated positiveness of the counseling experience. Data from a specially constructed specific expectancy questionnaire and from a measure of the generalized expectancy of locus of control of reinforcement (Adult Nowicki-Strickland Internal–External Control Scale) confirm these predictions. Clients had stable expectancies regarding the counseling process; internals as compared to externals presented different counseling problems, stayed in counseling a shorter time, but were rated as more improved. In addition, those clients who dropped out of counseling after the intake were internal in their locus-of-control orientation. Various practical applications of the results are discussed as well as directions for future research within the framework of social learning theory. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counseling style preference of international students.

Examined, with a single-S research design, the counseling-style preference of 6 international clients and 1 White-American client within and across 4 counseling sessions. All clients first listened to an audiotape (analog) counseling session containing a problem-solving approach and a client-centered approach and rated both approaches. The clients then rated these 2 counseling styles in actual counseling sessions. In contrast to past research findings, no overall preference was found for either approach. Preferences for a particular counseling style also changed from session to session. In addition, preferences exhibited during the analog portion of the study were often different from those expressed during the actual counseling sessions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Identification of the latent dimensions of instruments that measure perceptions of and expectations about counseling.

Numerous instruments have been developed to measure respondents' perceptions and expectations of counseling. Seven instruments with 33 scales to measure 22 different dimensions of counseling have been used most frequently in counseling psychology research. These instruments were administered to 253 undergraduate students after a 10-min videotape presentation of a staged counseling session. Their responses were factor analyzed by using a principal-factors extraction procedure and an oblique rotation. Six interpretable factors were identified, three each that measured respondents' expectations about and perceptions of counseling. No overlap occurred between the factors that pertained to expectations and perceptions. The results are consistent with previous research that has questioned the independence of scales that reportedly measure perceptions of counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of a sex-fair counselor and her client.

Investigated the effects of sex-fair counseling on 18 male and 21 female undergraduates' perceptions of (a) a female counselor, (b) a same-sex client, and (c) their own attitudes. The experimental design was a 2?×?2 factorial in which a female or a male client discussed traditional or nontraditional career plans with the counselor. The only significant findings regarding perceptions of the counselor were that women anticipated that they would feel more comfortable with the counselor who facilitated nontraditional career exploration than did men. Women tended to evaluate traditional and nontraditional clients similarly, whereas men evaluated the traditional client more favorably regarding academic achievement. Ss' own attitudes regarding occupational choice did not differ significantly between the 2 types of counseling, although the nontraditional condition did seem to result in greater flexibility among women. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)