Effects of counselor statements on rater judgments of client self-exploration.

Examined the influence of counselor statements on rater judgements of client self-exploration. Audiotaped segments of counseling interviews that included both counselor and client statements and identical autiotaped segments, but with the counselors' statements deleted, were rated on client self-exploration by separate groups of raters (totaling 20 counseling graduate students). A significantly positive correlation was found between the 2 sets of ratings. With 1 exception, no significant differences were found for each segment. Finally, no differences were found between ratings for segments, unedited and edited, in which counselors were functioning at high levels of accurate empathy and ratings in which counselors were functioning at low levels of accurate empathy. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor response behavior on clients' impressions during vocational counseling.

We examined the effects of four counselor response types—self-disclosure, self-involving, empathy, and open question—on subjects' impressions of the counselor during vocational counseling. A total of 201 undergraduate students viewed videotapes of an initial vocational counseling interview, in which the counselor used either self-disclosure, self-involving, empathy, or open-question statements. Using a 2 (counselor sex)?×?2 (client sex)?×?4 (response type) design, a three-way interaction was found in regard to counselor social influence. However, for the most part, a general lack of significance was found across the dependent measures. These results are interpreted relative to vocational counseling and then compared to the literature on personal–social counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contribution of personal characteristics and interview training to the effectiveness of college student mental health workers.

Peer ratings made during a structured small group interaction (using the Group Assessment of Interpersonal Traits) were used to select participants from a pool of 103 female undergraduates who had volunteered for a human service practicum. Participants with the 32 highest and 30 lowest scores on behavioral measures of empathy, warmth, and openness (therapeutic talent) were randomly assigned to 3 training conditions: problem-solving interviewing, diagnostic interviewing, or no training. Each participant then served as an understanding listener in a problem-focused dyadic interview. Ratings made by interviewees and by 2 independent, objective raters were higher for those initially selected as having high therapeutic talent. Those noted as high in therapeutic talent also performed better as measured by objective behavioral ratings of the content of their interview statements. There were no systematic training effects. The implications of these results for the selection and training of nonprofessional mental health workers are discussed. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses of deaf adolescents to differences in counselor method of communication and disability status.

This study tested the effects of disability status (deaf or hearing) and communication method (sign language, interpreter, or written) on deaf subjects' ratings of counselor social influence, counselor empathy, and willingness to see the counselor. Deaf adolescent subjects (53 female and 53 male) rated one of six videotapes portraying a deaf or hearing counselor using sign language, an intepreter, or written communication in counseling a deaf client on a topic of high relevance. The results indicated that counselors were rated higher on social influence, counselor effectiveness, and empathy if they used sign language rather than written communication. No significant differences were found for counselor or disability status. The subjects indicated a greater willingness to see a hearing counselor who used a sign language or an interpreter rather than written communication, although these results were not replicated for a deaf counselor. We discuss the implications for the use of sign language with deaf adolescent clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal and therapeutic styles of experienced therapists who differ in peer-rated therapist effectiveness.

Investigated some relationships between the verbal behavior of 20 experienced therapists and their therapist effectiveness. Forced oral responses to a taped therapy interaction were obtained and analyzed. Each dependent variable (empathy, positive regard, genuineness, functional level, voice quality, freshness of words, change of topic, confrontation style, personal references, and statements) was correlated against a rating of a therapist's effectiveness made by experienced judges using the Truax-Carkhuff scales. Of 10 hypotheses, 5 were supported. The more effective the experienced therapist, the higher the levels of offered empathy, positive regard, and genuineness, and the more likely the therapist was to use "inner focus" and "experiential confrontation." Variables of number of years of experience and level of empathy were investigated further. Findings and their implications are discussed. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generalization of self-discrepant information as a function of defensive style.

Administered the Byrne's Repression-Sensitization scale to 203 male undergraduates. 24 repressors and 24 sensitizers were selected and then presented with self-discrepant information (low maturity scores) in a microcounseling interview under conditions that made denial difficult. Ss subsequently interacted with a counselor using either a cognitively or an affectively oriented style to help gain acceptance of the self-discrepant information. Generalization effects of the self-discrepant information presented were studied on ratings of 4 personality dimensions (openness, sensitivity, masculinity, and acceptance) not discussed in the microcounseling interview. Analysis revealed significant generalization effects on self-attribute ratings resulting from counseling approach and a significant interaction of defensive style with counseling approach. No significant generalization effects were found on analysis of counselor attribute ratings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of race and socioeconomic status on the perception of process variables in counseling.

Analyzed the effects of race and socioeconomic status (SES) on the perception of process variables in counseling, including judged counselor empathy, judged counselor–client cognitive similarity, and attraction. The study used a 2?×?12?×?2?×?6 design (race of S, tape order, SES of client, race of counselor and client) with repeated measures on the SES of client variable and the race of counselor and client variable. Following empathy training, 12 Black and 12 White undergraduate middle-class males listened to 12 specially prepared counselor–client taped dialogs and rated the counselor and client on each tape on the process variables being researched. All hypotheses were confirmed. Both Black and White Ss gave highest counselor empathy ratings, client–counselor attraction and cognitive similarity ratings, and client improvement ratings to matchings in which the counselor and client were similar over race and social class, and they gave lowest ratings when the counselor and client were dissimilar over race and social class. Effects of client accent were generally not significant. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of training, stimulus context, and mode of stimulus presentation on empathy ratings.

Investigated how empathy ratings made by raters trained to use the Empathic Understanding in Interpersonal Processes (EU) Scale were affected by the conditions under which the ratings were made. 54 female undergraduates served as raters. The 3 factors studied were (a) training condition, (b) context of the counselor statement rated, and (c) mode of presentation of stimuli to the raters. Results indicate that training condition was the only significant factor. The significance of this factor is discussed in terms of the possible danger in comparing studies that used different training procedures. The nonsignificance of the context and mode factors is discussed in terms of the construct validity of the EU scale. It is argued that empathy ratings should logically be sensitive to the rater's knowledge of to whom and to what the counselor is responding. As this was not the case in the present study, the construct validity of the scale was held in question. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived interviewer expertness and attractiveness: Effects of interviewer behavior and attire and interview setting.

80 undergraduate students had a brief interview with 1 of 2 female interviewers in 1 of 8 conditions defined by interviewer role (expert or attractive), interviewer attire (professional or casual), and interview setting (professional or casual). Following the interview, students rated the interviewers on a counselor rating form. Data indicate that only counselor role behavior significantly affected Ss' perceptions of interviewer attractiveness, while perceptions of expertness seemed to have been affected jointly by role and attire. Within-cell comparisons revealed that for nearly all Ss, the relative magnitude of expertness as compared to attractiveness ratings was determined by interviewer behavior. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client verbal and nonverbal reinforcement of counselor behavior: Its impact on interviewing behavior and postinterview evaluation.

Examined the effect of client reinforcement on counselor behavior within the interview as well as on selected attitudinal judgments of the counselor about the client. 30 counselor-trainees interviewed a standard client for 1 20-min interview. Following a 10-min baseline period, the client reinforced the counselor's reflection of feeling (RF) statements with either a verbal response, a verbal plus nonverbal response, or a noncontingent verbal plus nonverbal response. Counselors then completed a postinterview questionnaire measuring attraction to and clinical impression of the client. Results show that (a) counselors in verbal and verbal plus nonverbal conditions showed significant increases in RF statements, while noncontingent controls showed no significant gains; and (b) differences in counselor attraction and clinical impression of the client were minimal. Implications are discussed in terms of skill acquisition in counselor training. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cost/benefit analysis of the interpersonal process recall technique.

Examined interpersonal process recall (IPR), a supervisory technique, by a cost-benefit analysis. Cost was defined as the possible inhibitory effects on client self-exploration of the use of IPR; benefit was defined as client satisfaction, increased supervisor ratings, and increased counselor empathy levels. Counselors were 36 master's level trainees, clients were 36 undergraduate psychology students, and supervisors were 6 doctoral students in counseling. The IPR treatment consisted of 3 videotaped interviews followed by client, counselor, or mutual recall. The comparison treatment consisted of 3 audiotaped interviews followed by traditional supervision. Results indicate that IPR, when compared to traditional supervision, did not produce differential effects on counselors' empathy level, client satisfaction, supervisor ratings, or clients' self-reported inhibition. Method of supervision, however, did effect significant change in clients' level of self-exploration over time. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparability of interviewer, group, and individual interview ratings.

Compared interview trait ratings made by individual and groups of managers following exposure to videotaped interview playbacks with ratings made by experienced interviewers participating in 34 live interviews couched in a typical entry-level managerial employment setting. A convergent and discriminant validity analysis was made to assess the adequacy of the interview rating procedure. Mean ratings made by groups of managers were similar to mean ratings made by the interviewers. Agreement between the 2 dissimilar rater types using direct (face to face) and indirect (videotaped) stimuli indicated that perceptual distortion was now a strong factor. Individual managers' mean ratings suggested a leniency effect. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accuracy of accurate empathy ratings.

Studied the accuracy of accurate empathy ratings among 31 counseling graduate students by comparing 2 sets of ratings made under different experimental conditions with each other and with a predefined criterion of accuracy. 10 counselor-client exchanges representing excerpts from a single interview were deliberately constructed to represent 2 interactions at each level of the 5-point Accurate Empathy Scale. 2 groups of raters differing in amount of prior client information rated the exchanges. Data indicated that the 17 informed raters were significantly more accurate in their ratings than 14 noninformed raters and significant discrepancies in ratings occurred at the higher scale points of the Accurate Empathy Scale. Implications and suggestions for using this scale are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of self-disclosing versus self-involving counselor statements.

Studied 107 female undergraduates who listened to 1 of 2 audiotaped recordings of a counseling interview between an experienced male counselor and a female client. Half of the Ss heard a tape containing counselor self-disclosure (S-D) statements; the other half heard a tape containing counselor self-involving (S-I) statements. Ss rated the counselor's expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness (Counselor Rating Form) and generated written responses to each S-D or S-I counselor statement. The S-I counselor was rated as significantly more expert and trustworthy than was the S-D counselor. Further, Ss' responses to the S-D counselor statements contained significantly more questions about and references to the counselor, whereas responses to S-I counselor statements contained significantly more self-referents. Ss' responses to the S-I counselor were significantly more likely to be phrased in the present, rather than the past or future, tense. Implications for the practice of counseling and for further research on self-disclosure are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential expression of empathy in a counseling analogue.

Administered an incomplete sentences measure of conceptual functioning to 40 graduate counseling students. Ss then made written responses to 12 statements by each of 2 clients in a 2 * 2 factorial analysis of variance design (Counselor's Complexity * Analogue Complexity). Results indicate that (a) the more complex counselors expressed a significantly higher level of empathy, and (b) the level of empathy manifested was conditioned by a significant interaction effect between type of counselor and client. The implications for studying the phenomena of differential effects are discussed. (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)