Flynn effects not genetic and unrelated to race differences.

Comments on the article by J. R. Flynn (see record 1999-00167-001) which argued that massive IQ gains over time test the IQ-intelligence equation, reveal groups who achieve far beyond their mean IQ's and falsify prominent arguments for a genetic racial IQ gap. The author contends that Flynn fails to report in sufficient detail a summary of what the gains over time do and do not tell us about the nature of the Black–White difference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure": Correction to Flynn.

Reports an error in "Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure" by James R. Flynn (Psychological Bulletin, 1987[Mar], Vol 101[2], 171-191). In this article, it was wrongly stated that that U. Schallberger put forward a hypothesis or hypotheses concerning the magnitude of Swiss IQ gains; in fact, he did not. Flynn wishes to acknowledge this error and stress that his critique of these hypotheses does not apply to Schallberger. Schallberger had earlier come to the same conclusion as Flynn, namely, that the Swiss have probably made sizable IQ gains, but all estimates of magnitude would have only speculative status. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1987-17534-001.) Data from 14 nations reveal IQ gains ranging from 5 to 25 points in a single generation. Some of the largest gains occur on culturally reduced tests and tests of fluid intelligence. The Norwegian data show that a nation can make significant gains on a culturally reduced test while suffering losses on other tests. The Dutch data proved the existence of unknown environmental factors so potent that they account for 15 of the 20 points gained. The hypothesis that best fits the results is that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence. This hypothesis can also explain difficult trends on various mental tests, such as the combination of IQ gains and Scholastic Aptitude Test losses in the United States. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Heterosis doesn't cause the Flynn effect: A critical examination of Mingroni (2007).

Mingroni (see record 2007-10421-011) proposed that heterosis or hybrid vigor may be the principal driver of the Flynn effect—the tendency for IQ scores to increase at a rate of approximately 3 points per decade. This model was presented as a resolution to the IQ paradox—the observation that IQ scores have been increasing despite their high adult heritability—on the basis that substantial changes in IQ can only be accounted for by changes in underlying genetic factors. It is here argued that this model is predicated upon a misconception of the Flynn effect, which is most pronounced on the least g-loaded components of cognitive ability tests and is uncorrelated with genetic effects such as inbreeding depression scores (which are correlated with the g loadings of tests). Evidence supportive of the recently proposed life history model of the Flynn effect is presented. In the discussion, other theoretical objections to the heterosis model are also considered. On this basis, it is concluded that the Flynn effect is strongly entwined with developmental status and that heterosis cannot be its principal cause. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of age-extended norms for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised in patients with Alzheimer's disease.

Recent studies by R. J. Ivnik et al (see record 1993-04116-001), J. F. Malec et al (see record 1993-04120-001), and J. J. Ryan et al (see record 1991-08835-001) have provided age-extended norms for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R). The current study compared IQ scores based on these newer age-extended norms in 216 elderly Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Results showed that when the norms from Ryan et al were used, IQ scores were consistently the same as or higher than when WAIS—R manual norms were used. When the norms provided by Ivnik et al and Malec et al were used, IQ scores tended to be lower than WAIS—R manual norms for younger patients with more intellectual impairment. Results illustrate the importance of reporting the normative sample upon which IQ test scores for older adults are based and provide guidelines for selecting which set of age-extended WAIS—R norms to use with cognitively impaired elderly Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Derived IQ estimates from the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Investigated relationships between estimates of IQ derived by S. E. McKay et al (see record 1982-04758-001) and by A. Prifitera and J. J. Ryan (see record 1982-00171-001) from the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery, using Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) IQ values as the criterion. Ss were 64 severely disturbed neuropsychiatric patients (mean age 31.75 yrs). Findings were similar to those of the previous studies regarding Luria-Nebraska correlations with standard IQ scores and question the utility of IQ estimates when relatively precise indicators of intelligence are required. Subsamples of schizophrenics and depressives are also analyzed. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 101(3) of Psychological Bulletin (see record 2008-10701-001). In this article, it was wrongly stated that that U. Schallberger put forward a hypothesis or hypotheses concerning the magnitude of Swiss IQ gains; in fact, he did not. The erratum includes the author's clarification.] Data from 14 nations reveal IQ gains ranging from 5 to 25 points in a single generation. Some of the largest gains occur on culturally reduced tests and tests of fluid intelligence. The Norwegian data show that a nation can make significant gains on a culturally reduced test while suffering losses on other tests. The Dutch data proved the existence of unknown environmental factors so potent that they account for 15 of the 20 points gained. The hypothesis that best fits the results is that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence. This hypothesis can also explain difficult trends on various mental tests, such as the combination of IQ gains and Scholastic Aptitude Test losses in the United States. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The doth protest too much.

Replies to comments by C. T. Ramey and S. L. Ramey (see record 1998-12442-012), F. J. Symons and S. F. Warren (see record 1998-12442-013), and B. K. Keogh et al (see record 1998-12442-014) on the original article by D. K. Detterman and L. A. Thompson (see record 1997-30052-007) concerning special education. Detterman and Thompson re-assert and provide explanations for their position that there have been no convincing demonstrations of special education techniques that unambiguously lead to gains in academic achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tethering the elephant: Capital cases, IQ, and the Flynn effect.

Capital offenders cannot be executed if they are mentally retarded. Therefore, the IQ scores of offenders are important, and the U.S. 4th Circuit Court of Appeals has held that the Flynn effect is relevant to interpreting their IQ scores. The Flynn effect (IQ gains over time) means that different IQ tests will give different scores purely as a result of when the tests were normed. Because execution must not be a random result of what test defendants take, a formula is provided to convert IQ scores to a common metric: the norms current at the time the test was taken. The formula also includes a correction based on evidence that the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition inflates IQs because of sampling error. Given the inevitability that opposing experts will offer conflicting diagnoses, IQ scores merit special attention in capital cases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Raising questions about raising IQs: Review of Intelligence and giftedness: The contributions of heredity and early environment.

Reviews the book, Intelligence and giftedness: The contributions of heredity and early environment by Miles D. Storfer (see record 1990-97741-000). For at least the past 70 years our IQ scores apparently have risen by the equivalent of approximately 1/5 to 1/4 of a point per year. If we accept the idea of what Flynn (1987) himself refers to as "Massive IQ gains" (and the supporting evidence that Flynn has amassed appears solid) our next step should clearly be an attempt to identify the factors responsible for these gains. Have our educational systems improved dramatically? What about our nutrition and general levels of health? Have home environments and parent-child interactions undergone radical changes? Besides environmental factors, is it possible that some sorts of hereditary mechanisms might be implicated? In Intelligence and giftedness: The contributions of heredity and early environment, Storfer addresses these and related issues. The result of his extensive review of the literature in areas as diverse as behavioural genetics, infant intelligence tests, white-black IQ differences, educational enrichment programs, and neurophysiology is a 500-plus-page book which is sometimes informative, often disappointing, and, in the end, too speculative to live up to its promotional claim of advancing "one of the most exciting and controversial evolutionary theories since Darwin". Parts of this book are good. Storfer is to be commended for the wide range of material that he surveys, and his attempts to integrate this diverse material have generally been successful. Another positive feature is the inclusion of numerous notes at the end of all but one chapter, plus one appendix, which provide additional information and/or technical details for readers interested in learning more about specific studies or issues mentioned briefly in the text. Unfortunately, Storfer does not seem to appreciate the varying quality of the research studies that he reviews, and some of the conclusions that he draws are highly speculative. Intelligence and giftedness was an ambitious project that would have benefitted considerably from a more cautious interpretation of the results and the implications of the research that it surveys. The issues that this book addresses and the questions that it raises are undoubtedly important and deserving of study. For the most part, however, the answers will have to be found elsewhere. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Commentary on profile analysis.

A plan for an ideal profile analysis system for IQ testing is sketched as a model against which to evaluate the articles on various aspects of the issue by, respectively, S. I. Pfeiffer et al (see record 2001-16379-001), C. A. Riccio and G. W. Hynd (see record 2001-16379-002), D. A. Pritchard et al (see record 2001-16379-003), J. A. Naglieri (see record 2001-16379-004), and H. C. Stanton and C. R. Reynolds (see record 2001-16379-005). Brief comments are offered on the profile analysis procedures used in each article. In general, profile analysis procedures used in these articles, although judged to be competent and acceptable in the context of contemporary research objectives, are far short of ultimate possibilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal-Performance IQ discrepancies on the WISC-R: One more time.

The formula that R. J. Piotrowski (see record 1979-12366-001) used to determine the abnormality of Verbal–Performance IQ discrepancies on the WISC-R gave results that differed greatly from the actual values reported by A. S. Kaufman (see record 1977-07179-001). Since the assumption on which the formula is based, bivariate normality, is met by the WISC-R standardization data, the disparity is puzzling. It is suggested that Piotrowski erred in applying the formula not to IQs but to sums of scaled scores. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race, IQ, and rampant misrepresentations: A reply.

In L. E. Longstreth's (see record 1979-23197-001) critique of F. K. Trotman's study (see record 1978-06591-001), he attributes conclusions and interpretations to Trotman that indicate either a misunderstanding or misinterpretation on Longstreth's part or a failure in effective communication on Trotman's part. In any case, Trotman's response represents an attempt to clarify Longstreth's apparently cloudy view of the earlier Trotman work. J. L. Wolff (see record 1979-23222-001) suggested that experimenter bias operated to produce anomalies in Trotman's findings that despite similarity in socioeconomic standing, there was a difference in the intellectual home environments of Blacks and Whites, that IQ was related to home environment, and that home environment did as well as academic achievement in predicting IQ. On examination of Wolff's statements and reference citations, however, Trotman finds evidence of bias and irregularities in his critique. For example, Wolff misconstrues data, selectively either omits or includes reference citations, or statements out of context, and misrepresents previous investigations, suggesting a possibility of commentator bias. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rediscovering old truths: or A word by the wise is sometimes lost.

Responds to criticisms by J. Werner et al (1977), R. C. Nichols (1977), and Q. McNemar (1977) of S. Scarr and R. A. Weinberg's (see record 1977-07996-001) article on IQ scores of Black children adopted by White families. The study's importance for demonstrating the malleability of IQ scores is emphasized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive profile analysis: A shared professional myth.

Comments on articles by S. I. Pfeiffer et al (see record 2001-16379-001), C. A. Riccio and G. W. Hynd (see record 2001-16379-002), D. A. Pritchard et al (see record 2001-16379-003), J. A. Naglieri (see record 2001-16379-004), and H. C. Stanton and C. R. Reynolds (see record 2001-16379-005) on profile analysis in IQ tests. Consistent with the largely negative research literature, detailed analysis found the cognitive profile reports presented in these studies to be lacking reliability, validity, or diagnostic utility; even cognitive profiles composed of composites were psychometrically weak. These results were not surprising because ipsative methods are inferior to normative methods in cognitive assessment. Given this consistent failure of empirical validation, belief in the utility of cognitive test profile interpretations was likened to a shared professional myth and it was recommended that psychologists eschew the application of cognitive test profiles for differential diagnosis and remediation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Heredity, environment, and race differences in IQ: A commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005).

J. P. Rushton and A. R. Jensen (see record 2005-03637-001) ignore or misinterpret most of the evidence of greatest relevance to the question of heritability of the Black-White IQ gap. A dispassionate reading of the evidence on the association of IQ with degree of European ancestry for members of Black populations, convergence of Black and White IQ in recent years, alterability of Black IQ by intervention programs, and adoption studies lend no support to a hereditarian interpretation of the Black-White IQ gap. On the contrary, the evidence most relevant to the question indicates that the genetic contribution to the Black-White IQ gap is nil. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adjusting IQ scores for the Flynn effect: Consistent with the standard of practice?

Should psychologists adjust obtained IQ scores to accommodate the Flynn effect (J. R. Flynn, 1985)? The authors surveyed directors of doctoral training programs approved by the American Psychological Association and board-certified school psychologists and completed a systematic review of IQ test manuals, contemporary textbooks on IQ testing, federally regulated IQ testing protocols, and various sources of legal and ethical guidance. They confirmed in each instance that such adjustments to IQ scores do not comport with prevailing standards of psychological practice. Results of IQ testing may be applied to a broad range of psycholegal issues, many of which cannot be anticipated. Psychologists assist examinees, courts, and other 3rd parties most effectively by administering and interpreting IQ tests in their intended fashion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Still no convincing evidence of a relation between brain size and intelligence in humans.

Replies to the comment by R. Lynn (see record 1994-24539-001) on M. Peters's (see record 1992-18876-001) claim that there is no association between brain size and IQ. It is countered that the available evidence is not strong enough to accept the proposition that brain size and IQ are positively correlated. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dysgenesis and IQ: What evidence is relevant?

W. M. Williams and S. J. Ceci (see record 1998-00892-001) argue against the presence of dysgenic trends for IQ in the United States on the basis of absence of change in the differences between various groups. It is noted here that such differences say little about dysgenesis: This is illustrated by an example of the numbers of children born to Black and White women at different educational levels. Some overall effects, mechanisms, and implications of dysgenesis for IQ are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement": Addendum.

Responds to the critique by the Council for the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (see record 1990-56779-001) of A. R. Jensen's article (see record 1969-09740-001) concerning the influence of heredity vs environment on IQ and scholastic achievement and suggests that the critique draws attention to Jensen's use of a social definition of race for the population tested for IQ. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)