Agreement, attraction, and self-esteem.

Explored the role of increased self-esteem in mediating the relationship between attitudinal agreement and interpersonal attraction by creating conditions known to produce differential attraction and then testing for corresponding changes in self-esteem. 280 undergraduates were given a questionnaire measuring attitudes and self-esteem and were then exposed to a confederate student who (a) held either similar or dissimilar attitudes on a variety of current issues; and (b) had given them either a positive, a negative, or no personal evaluation. Posttreatment confederate evaluations and measures of self-esteem indicate that although the attraction manipulation was highly successful, no support was found for the notion that increased self-esteem was even a concomitant, let alone a determinant, of attraction. The only reliable posttreatment increase in self-esteem came from Ss who had been negatively evaluated, and appeared to be defensive in character. In addition, Ss receiving similar attitudes plus positive personal evaluations liked the stranger more, and those receiving dissimilar attitudes plus negative evaluations liked the stranger less, than did Ss who received the attitude similarity-dissimilarity manipulation only. These latter results suggest that current models of attraction in which the proportion of positive elements is the crucial factor should be reformulated. (French summary) (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of self-esteem lability and low trait self-esteem as vulnerability factors for depression.

Self-esteem lability (SEL), defined as daily event-related variability in state self-esteem, and low trait self-esteem (TSE) were assessed among 205 male and female undergraduates who were currently depressed, previously depressed (PD), and never depressed (ND). SEL scores were derived for the effect of positive, negative, and combined events on state self-esteem over 30 days. Consistent with psychodynamic and cognitive theories, SEL was found to be a better index of depression proneness than TSE. PD Ss showed higher lability on all SEL scores than ND controls but did not differ from controls on TSE. Ss were reassessed 5 mo later, and new cases showed higher premorbid SEL than ND controls but did not differ from controls on premorbid TSE. SEL at Time 1 was found to increase risk for depression at Time 2 among Ss reporting high life stress at Time 2. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The contributions of attributional style, expectancies, depression, and self-esteem in a cognition-based depression model.

Used structural equation modeling to examine the relations among attributional style (AS), outcome expectancies for future life-events, depression, and self-esteem among 195 college students. Ss completed questionnaires assessing AS, outcome expectancies, depression, and self esteem. Consistent with the hopelessness and self-regulation theories of depression, the 1st series of models illustrated that positive attributional styles (PAS) and negative attributional styles (NAS) had direct influences on expectancies, and that expectancies had a direct influence on depression. An NAS influenced depression independent of one's expectancies for the future. A 2nd series of models, which included the latent construct of self-esteem, showed that the previously modeled relations showing a PAS and an NAS having direct influence on expectancies and expectancies having a direct inverse effect on depression remained consistent. A PAS had an indirect positive influence on self-esteem via expectancies. A PAS also had a direct positive effect on self-esteem, an unexpected finding according to self-regulation theory. The final model also showed that self-esteem was inversely influenced by depression. A LISREL correlation matrix is appended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of self-presentation on the phenomenal self.

Examined the effects of strategic self-enhancement (SE) or self-deprecation (SD) on private self-appraisal. Previous work by E. E. Jones et al (see record 1982-07768-001) indicated that self-perception variables (whether Ss self-referenced) best account for elevations in self-esteem after SE behavior, whereas cognitive dissonance variables (whether Ss were given a clear choice to engage in the behavior) best account for decreases in self-esteem after SD behavior. It was proposed that these findings can be accommodated by a model that represents the phenomenal self as a latitude of acceptance that incorporates both positive and negative self-referent material and as latitudes of rejection containing potential positive and negative material not currently stored in self-referent form. The present study tested the prediction that self-perception would account for positive and negative shifts in self-esteem within Ss' latitudes of acceptance and that cognitive dissonance would explain positive and negative shifts in self-esteem within Ss' latitudes of rejection. Accordingly, 128 depressed and nondepressed undergraduates (as assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory) were instructed to self-reference or to role-play SE or SD during an interview while under high- or low-choice instructions. In support of the model, the results indicate that self-perception processes mediated subsequent shifts in self-esteem for SE nondepressed and SD depressed Ss. Cognitive dissonance processes mediated subsequent shifts in self-esteem for SD nondepressed and SE depressed Ss. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Regulating affect interpersonally: When low esteem leads to greater enhancement.

We tested the hypothesis that low self-esteem persons use self-presentation to improve their affect. In Experiments 1–3, Ss high in self-esteem (HSE) and low in self-esteem (LSE) responded publicly or privately to positive or negative feedback from a computer "personality test" (Experiments 1 and 2) or from a peer (Experiment 3). In public, LSE Ss complimented positive sources and derogated negative sources more than their counterparts did. Experiment 2 showed that this was not due to another person's awareness of the feedback, ruling out a strict impression management interpretation. In Experiment 4, some Ss were coaxed to compliment the source of feedback and others were coaxed to derogate the source of feedback. When publicly complimenting positive feedback or derogating negative feedback, LSE Ss generally showed a rise in esteem relative to their counterparts. Based on these findings, a model of affect regulation in interpersonal relations is proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of a geriatric scale of hopelessness: Implications for counseling and intervention with the depressed elderly.

Evaluated hopelessness, depression, and self-esteem in 138 65–80 yr old subclinically depressed people drawn from community settings. In Phase 1, a factor analysis was performed on the contents of interviews with 60 Ss. Analysis yielded 4 distinct factors of geriatric hopelessness. In Phase 2, a geriatric hopelessness scale (included as a table) was developed on the basis of hopelessness themes suggested by factor analysis and was administered to 78 Ss. Results of this validity study show that Ss who scored high on the geriatric hopelessness scale had significantly higher depression and lower self-esteem scores than Ss who scored low on the scale. It is suggested that the same correlational patterns that exist in youth and adults between hopelessness and depression continue into old age. It is further suggested that identification of clients' latent themes of hopelessness would help counselors obtain more focused insight into clients' pessimism and negative outlooks and would provide the particular kind of encouragement and reinforcement needed. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem, mood, and self-evaluation: Changes in mood and the way you see you.

Three studies found that self-esteem moderates the relation between mood and self-evaluation. In Study 1, a standard mood-induction procedure was used to induce positive, negative, or neutral moods in low self-esteem (LSE) Ss and high self-esteem Ss. Afterward, Ss evaluated their specific qualities and characteristics (e.g., How smart are you? How kind are you?). Both self-esteem groups evaluated themselves favorably in a positive mood, but LSE Ss were more apt to lower their self-evaluations in a negative mood. Study 2 found a similar, though weaker, pattern using a noncognitive, musical mood induction; Study 3 found that these effects occur with variations in naturally occurring mood over a 6-wk period. The authors suggest that the tendency for LSE people to respond to negative mood with self-depreciation contributes to psychological distress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aspects of the self-concept related to level of self-esteem.

Studied aspects of the phenomenal self-concept of 30 male Ss varying in self-esteem, using a numerical self-report approach. 10 Ss were from each of the 3 categories (high, medium, low) of the Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI). Numerical ratings of importance and salience of self-enumerated positive and negative characteristics were used to generate a series of scores. Significant differences were found on an overall self-esteem score, which correlated .59 with scores on the SEI. No significant differences were found on ratings of positive characteristics, while striking differences were noted for negative characteristics. Results suggest that it is how individuals experience negative rather than positive characteristics that plays a determining role in self-esteem. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributional versus preattributional variables in self-esteem and depression: A comparison and test of learned helplessness theory.

Tested, in 2 samples of undergraduates (92 in Exp I and 55 in Exp II), predictions made according to the attributional reformulation of learned helplessness theory concerning the cognitive determinants of low self-esteem and depression. Real and hypothetical life events were used. Ss were administered the Beck Depression Inventory, a checklist of life events, and a self-esteem scale. As predicted, internal attributions for hypothetical success and failure were correlated with self-esteem, but there was an unexpected correlation with global attributions for negative outcomes. Two preattributional variables, consensus and consistency judgments, were also related to self-esteem and depression. In contrast to learned helplessness theory, a path analysis indicated that these variables were not attributionally mediated. Consensus judgment was as strong a predictor of depression as the number of recent distressing life events that Ss had experienced. Other evidence that links depression to perceived low consensus is described, and a possible etiological role for this variable is outlined. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression, self-esteem, and the absence of self-protective attributional biases.

Previous research has demonstrated a relation between depression and attributional style. In the present study we evaluated the extent to which self-esteem may be an important determinant of attributional style. Subjects completed measures of self-esteem, depression, and anxiety and responded to the Attributional Style Questionnaire. Maximum R–2 analyses revealed that for significant one-variable and multivariable regression models, self-esteem accounted for the variation in attributional style on the majority of outcome measures. Depression and anxiety added little beyond the contribution of self-esteem. These findings were consistent for both positive and negative events. In addition, self-esteem accounted for variation in attributional evenhandedness. Results are discussed in terms of the role of self-esteem maintenance in attributional style. (61 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of self-esteem manipulation on arousal and reactions to sad models in depressed and nondepressed college students.

24 depressed and 24 nondepressed college students were given spurious feedback, either positive or negative, about the results of personality tests. They then watched a film of an intensive encounter group. Psychophysiological reactions to both feedback and observation of sad film models were recorded. Depressed Ss showed greater arousal than nondepressed Ss only after negative feedback. Depressed Ss reacted emotionally to the sad models after negative feedback; nondepressed Ss, after positive feedback. Arousal results indicate that depressed Ss were particularly reactive to a "loss" of self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal engagement in social perception: The consequences of getting into the action.

Examined the effects on person perception of varying levels of observer-actor engagement using 60 undergraduates. Ss observed a male actor (confederate) responding to interview questions on a prerecorded videotape under 3 conditions of interpersonal engagement: Ss in a detachment condition knew that they were simply observing a tape; Ss in an anticipated-interaction condition knew that they were observing a tape but expected to interact subsequently with the actor; Ss in an actual-interaction condition thought that they were interacting with the actor over a video hook-up. Half of the Ss observed the actor preface his responses with a positive comment regarding the interviewer's question (positive actor); the other half observed the actor preface his responses with a negative comment (negative actor). It was predicted that anticipated-interaction Ss would demonstrate hopefulness by attributing the positive actor's behavior dispositionally and the negative actor's behavior situationally but that actual-interaction Ss would show the opposite causal attribution pattern in an attempt to protect or enhance their own self-esteem. Results confirm these predictions. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compartmentalization of positive and negative self-knowledge: Keeping bad apples out of the bunch.

Three studies examined whether categorical organization of knowledge about the self explains variance in self-esteem and depression beyond that which is accounted for by sheer amount of positive or negative content. Compartmentalization is the tendency to organize positive and negative knowledge about the self into separate, uniformly valenced categories (self-aspects). As long as positive self-aspects are activated, access to negative information should be minimized. Compartmentalization was associated with high self-esteem and low depression scores for individuals whose positive self-aspects were important; when negative self-aspects were important, compartmentalization was correlated with low self-esteem and high depression scores. An analysis of self-aspect labels showed that individuals with compartmentalized organization define negative self-aspects in especially narrow terms. A possible relationship between compartmentalized organization and cognitive complexity is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negative cognitive errors in children: Questionnaire development, normative data, and comparisons between children with and without self-reported symptoms of depression, low self-esteem, and evaluation anxiety.

Constructed a self-report questionnaire, Children's Negative Cognitive Error Questionnaire (CNCEQ), to measure in children 4 types of negative cognitive errors derived from A. T. Beck's (1967, 1976) cognitive theory of adult depression: (a) overgeneralized predictions of negative outcomes, (b) catastrophizing the consequences of negative events, (c) incorrectly taking personal responsibility for negative outcomes, and (d) selectively attending to negative features of an event. Results from administration of the CNCEQ to a normative sample of 637 4th-, 6th-, and 8th-grade children showed that in general these Ss did not endorse any of the 4 types of negative thoughts to any large extent. However, 3 subsequent studies, using 201 of the Ss in the normative sample and 211 other 4th–8th grade children, indicated that Ss with self-reported symptoms of depression, low self-esteem, and evaluation anxiety (according to a children's depression inventory, the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, and a test anxiety scale) endorsed each type of negative cognitive error significantly more than did their nondepressed, high self-esteem, and non-evaluation-anxious counterparts. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem and self-evaluative covert statements.

Self-esteem scores, as measured by 2 standardized inventories, were compared with self-monitored positive and negative self-evaluations in 33 college students. Self-esteem was negatively correlated with both the absolute and relative rates of negative self-evaluations. Also, Ss higher in self-esteem reported significantly greater rates of positive than negative self-evaluations, whereas these data for Ss lower in self-esteem were nondifferential. Self-monitored nonevaluative behaviors served as controls and indicated that the observed relationship between self-esteem and self-evaluative statements was not artifactual. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping ability, negative self-evaluation, and overgeneralization: Experiment and theory.

Compared responses of 3 groups of Ss differing in general coping ability, as measured by the Constructive Thinking Inventory, on matched sets of items that differed according to whether the outcomes were positive or negative and directed at the self or at others. All groups reported widespread overgeneralization to items with favorable outcomes. Groups differed strongly and consistently only in response to unfavorable outcomes directed at the self, with poor constructive thinkers reporting more negative overgeneralization than others following such outcomes. It was concluded that poor constructive thinkers have a selective bias toward making negative inferences about the self, which has widespread implications for their general coping ability. A theoretical framework is presented for understanding why individuals acquire and maintain negative self-schemata, which has implications for depression and self-esteem as well as for general coping ability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosocial adjustment of adolescent children of a depressed, arthritic, or normal parent.

Examined the joint effects of having a parent with a psychological or physical disability and stressful life events on the mental health of 3 groups of adolescents: 16 adolescent children of a depressed parent, 16 adolescent children of a parent with rheumatoid arthritis, and 16 adolescent children of parents free from psychological or physical disability. Ss were asked to complete a battery of assessments, including the SCL-90, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Family Environment Scale, and scales assessing life events and satisfaction with school. It was found that, in contrast to the normal group, Ss with arthritic parents reported lower self-esteem, whereas Ss with depressed parents reported lower self-esteem and more symptomatology. However, the 2 risk groups did not differ in terms of mental health or family and school adjustment. Both negative and positive life events were strongly related to poorer adjustment, but only for Ss with depressed and arthritic parents. There was a significant interaction effect of parental disability (depressed vs normal) and negative life events on symptomatology, with the Ss with depressed parents who experienced few negative life events reporting symptom levels equivalent to that of the normal group. Within-group analyses revealed that a positive familial social climate was related to better adjustment among all 3 groups: satisfactory school involvements were related to better adjustment among the depressed-parent and normal groups. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cost of good fortune: When positive life events produce negative health consequences.

Previous research regarding the effects of positive life events on physical health has been inconclusive. We tested the hypothesis that positive life events have a detrimental effect on health only among people with negative self-views. This prediction derives from an identity disruption model of stress, which holds that an accumulation of life events that are inconsistent with the self-concept leads to physical illness. To test the hypothesis, we conducted 2 prospective studies in which positive life events and self-esteem were used to predict the development of illness over time. In accordance with predictions, both studies showed that desirable life changes were associated with increases in illness only among Ss with low self-esteem; among Ss with high self-esteem, positive life events were linked to better health. Implications for understanding the manner in which life events affect health are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among psychiatrically disturbed inpatient children.

The Hoplessness Scale for Children was developed and administered to 66 8–13 yr old children along with the Children's Depression Inventory, Bellevue Index of Depression, Depression Symptom Checklist, and the Self-Esteem Inventory. As predicted, Ss who scored high on the Hopelessness Scale showed significantly more severe depression and lower self-esteem than those who scored low on the scale. Ss who evinced suicidal attempt or ideation, independently assessed at intake diagnosis, showed greater hopelessness than Ss with no such intent. Suicidal intent was more consistently correlated with hopelessness than with depression, a finding parallel to results obtained with adults. Overall, findings suggest that negative expectations toward oneself and the future can be assessed in children and are related both to depression and suicidal intent. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)