WEAR OF HARD-METALS IN ROCK DRILLING: A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE

Abstract

The literature concerning the wear of tungsten carbide-cobalt alloys used as tool bits in rock drilling is surveyed. The possible mechanisms of rock breakage and of tool wear are briefly discussed. Wear takes place as a result of shock impact or impact-fatigue spalling, by abrasion-mainly from the quartz grains in the rock, and also by thermal fatigue. The mechanism that dominates in any given conditions depends on the method of drilling and on the strength and abrasiveness of the rock. For rotary-percussive drilling, impact-fatigue wear and abrasion operate simultaneously,though essentially independently.

Published data on the relations between the wear of WC-Co alloys in rock drilling and their structure and properties are critically discussed. It appears that the resistance to impact wear is a direct function of the bulk compressive or transverse rupture strength and is related to the WC grain size and the Co mean free path. It is directly proportional to the blow energy in percussion. The results indicate that abrasion of WC-Co alloys by quartz is more complicated than abrasion of ‘simpler’ metals by either hard or relatively soft abrasives. The wear in abrasion during running-in is quite high and becomes greater with larger WC grain size, while the steady-state wear rate becomes less. The abrasion-resistance increases with rise in hardness and with decrease in WC grain size and cobalt content, but not in a simple fashion. It is proposed that abrasive wear takes place both by microfracture at the point of abrasive/metal contact and by preferential removal of cobalt. The former factor dominates for hard, brittle alloys and when the abrasive grains have a high resistance to fracture. The latter dominates for softer, more cobalt-rich alloys and when the abrasives are friable.

The considerable need for further research on all aspects of the wear behaviour of these alloys is stressed.     

超音速火焰喷涂技术制备的双峰WC–CoCr涂层磨粒磨损特性

采用超音速火焰喷涂(high velocity oxy-fuel,HVOF)工艺分别制备了双峰结构和常规结构的WC–CoCr复合涂层。比较了不同结构WC–CoCr涂层的组织结构、显微硬度和断裂韧性;在涂层磨粒磨损实验的基础上,探讨了双峰结构WC–CoCr涂层的磨损机理。结果表明:与常规结构的WC–CoCr复合涂层相比,在由含质量分数30%超细WC粉末制备的双峰结构涂层中,WC在黏结相中溶解最多,断裂韧性最低;由含质量分数50%超细WC粉末制备的双峰结构涂层最致密,显微硬度与断裂韧性最高,耐磨粒磨损性能最优良。     

WC含量对明弧堆焊奥氏体合金显微组织及耐磨性的影响

采用金属粉型药芯焊丝自保护明弧焊制备Cr9Mn6Nb2WVSi Ti奥氏体耐磨堆焊合金,借助XRD,SEM,EDS及光学显微镜研究外加WC颗粒对其显微组织及耐磨性的影响。结果表明,随焊丝药芯中WC增加,奥氏体晶粒细化,沿晶分布的多元合金化碳化物数量增加。初生γ-Fe相原位析出了(Nb,Ti,V)C相和残留WCx颗粒,起到晶内弥散强化作用,沿晶分布的(Nb,Ti,V)C和M_6C(M=Fe,Cr,Mn,V,W)相隔断了网状或树枝状的沿晶M_7C_3相,使其细化、断续分布而提高合金韧性,减轻沿晶碳化物数量增加的不利影响。硬度和磨损测试结果显示,明弧堆焊奥氏体合金洛氏硬度仅为40~47,但其磨损质量损失低于高铬铸铁合金,具有良好耐磨性;随外加WC含量提高,奥氏体合金晶内和晶界显微硬度差异显著减小,合金表面趋于均匀磨损而改善耐磨性。该奥氏体合金的磨损机制主要是磨粒显微切削,适用于带有一定冲击载荷磨粒磨损的工况下使用。     

中国超细和纳米晶WC-Co硬质合金的研究开发概况

概述了我国超细和纳米晶W C-Co硬质合金的研究开发现状。我国在制备超细晶硬质合金100nm左右的纳米级粉末原料(W C,W C-Co复合粉末)的批量化生产技术及烧结过程中抑制W C晶粒长大等关键技术方面已取得重要进展,可批量生产0.4～0.6滋m级超细晶硬质合金。添加新型VC基二元晶粒生长抑制剂可实验室制备W C平均晶粒度70nm的纳米晶硬质合金并获得优异性能。在此基础上,对生产技术的重点方向进行研究开发,推动我国超细晶硬质合金向产业化发展的基础条件已趋于成熟。     

Effect of Sintering Parameters on Magnetic Properties of Fe—0·45P Sintered Materials

Abstract

Fourteen commonly used, commercially available, WC–12Co thermal spray powders were characterized in terms of their particle size distribution, surface morphology, cross-sectional morphology, and phase composition. Based on the results, four powders were selected for the deposition of thermal spray coatings using the JP 5000 high pressure high velocity oxyfuel (HPHVOF) system. Dry sand rubber wheel abrasion tests were performed on the coatings in order to determine the effect of powder manufacturing method on the wear rates. The coating produced using the cast and crushed powder did not deposit well and wore through very rapidly. The abrasion tests on the remaining coatings showed that the other two powder manufacturing routes are essentially equivalent in terms of the resultant coating wear resistance. PM/0777     

The Corrosion and Wear Performance of Microcrystalline WC-10Co-4Cr and Near-Nanocrystalline WC-17Co High Velocity Oxy-Fuel Sprayed Coatings on Steel Substrate

The study of near-nanocrystalline cermet composite coating was performed by depositing near-nanocrystalline WC-17Co powder using the high velocity oxy-fuel spraying technique. The WC-17Co powder consists of a core with an engineered near-nano-scale WC dispersion with a mean grain size 427 nm. The powder particle contains 6 wt pct of the ductile phase Co matrix mixed into the core to ensure that the reinforcing ceramic phase WC material is discontinuous to limit debridement during wear, while the remainder of the binding phase (11 wt pct) is applied as a coating on the powder particle to improve the ductility. The tribological properties of the coating, in terms of corrosion resistance, microhardness, and sliding abrasive wear, were studied and compared with those of an industrially standard microcrystalline WC-10Co-4Cr coating with a WC mean grain size 3 μm. Results indicated that the WC-17Co coating had superior wear and corrosion resistance compared to the WC-10Co-4Cr coating. The engineered WC-17Co powder with a duplex Co layer had prevented significant decarburization of the WC dispersion in the coating, thereby reducing the intersplat microporosity necessary for initiating microgalvanic cells. The improved wear resistance was attributed to the higher hardness value of the near-nanocrystalline WC-17Co coating.     

Synthesis of ultrafine WC/Co powder by mechanochemical process

Abstract

A new approach to produce ultrafine WC/Co powder by a mechanochemical process was made to improve the mechanical properties of advanced hardmetals and to cut production costs. For powder preparation, the water soluble salts containing W and Co components were used as starting materials. After synthesis of the precursor powder from an aqueous solution by a spray drying technique, a salt removing heat treatment in air atmosphere was carried out to prepare the oxide powder. The oxide powder was mixed with carbon black by ball milling and this mixture was converted at 800^oC to the nanophase WC/Co powder in H₂ and N₂ atmospheres. The average size of the WC particle was 100-150 nm. The possibility of achieving high density sintered material with an ultrafine and homogeneous microstructure using grain growth inhibitors, such as tantalum and vanadium carbides, has been shown.     

多尺度原料WC热喷涂粉末特性分析

采用不同粒度的原料WC,利用团聚烧结法制备了四种WC-10Co-4Cr粉末A、B、C、D,并使用超音速火焰喷涂工艺（HVOF）制备了四种粉末相对应的涂层,测试了涂层的显微硬度、开裂韧性、磨粒磨损性能.并利用扫描电子显微镜和金相显微镜对喷涂粉末的组织结构进行了观察分析.结果表明：不同WC原料生产的粉末具有很好的球形度和流动性;粉末涂层组织结构致密;WC原料较细其涂层硬度、耐磨性较好,韧性较低;反之成立.可见不同WC原料生产的粉末涂层各有其不同的性能特点.     

Optimizing structure,toughness and wear performance of 15 % Cr cold work cast tool steel

A series of six Cr-, Cr + Mo-, Cr + Mo + V cold work cast tool steels were produced and investigated for microstructure, impact toughness and both experimental and industrial abrasive wear. Grain refinement of the steel matrix even in as-cast condition was obtained on using 2.3 % Mo + 0.9 % V and that ensured increasing impact toughness and abrasion resistance. An optimum impact toughness of about 85 J-cm^?2 was obtained in air quenched (970°C) and tempered (450°C) Mo + V containing steels in which area fraction of carbides reached 38 %. The abrasion resistance improved in case of steels tempered at 250°C and had fine grain structure.     

Electrical Conductivity and Strength Changes in Green Compacts of Iron Powder When Heated in Range 50–400°C in Air

Abstract

Based on considerable technological development and comprehensive work in process engineering, a method has been developed for short-time induction sintering of hardmetals which combines increased production throughput with savings in treatment time and improvement of the final product. The process is applicable to conventional WC–Co and WC–TiC–Co hardmetals and can be readily transferred to other cemented carbide systems. PM/0217     

Revealing the Role of Cerium on Precipitation Behavior of In Situ TiC Particles and Wear Resistance of High-Titanium Wear-Resistant Steels

Compared to conventional martensitic wear-resistant steels of the same hardness, high-titanium wear-resistant steels with in situ TiC particles can significantly improve wear resistance. However, micron-sized TiC particles will decrease the toughness of high-titanium wear-resistant steels. Here, in order to improve wear resistance without reducing impact toughness, we incorporate 0.0025% cerium elements into high-titanium wear-resistant steels. Compared with no cerium steel, the steel containing cerium is demonstrating comparable mechanical properties, with the yield strength of 1283 MPa and impact toughness of 35.6 J, and the wear performance of the steel containing cerium is 1.78 times that of the steel with no cerium. The results show that with the addition of cerium the effective grain size of the steel decreases, and yield strength and toughness increase. The addition of cerium can form intermetallic compounds of Ce₂O₂S, which are used as heterogeneous nuclear particles in TiC to form rare earth composite particles calculated by the 2D mismatch theoretical model of Bramfitt. As the average spacing of the reinforcing phase particles in the steel decreases, the effective grain size of the steel decreases, and the number of reinforcing phase particles increases, the wear resistance of the steel with the addition of cerium is optimized.     

WEAR AND FRICTION STUDIES OF NICKEL–TUNGSTEN CARBIDE–GRAPHITE COMPOSITES

Abstract

Wear and friction studies have been carried out on pressed and sintered composites of 75–95% theoretical density. Carbonyl nickel and tungsten carbide, both with a particle size of 5 μm, and natural crystalline flake graphite with an approximate size of 1·1 μm were used. The wear specimens were run against a rotating (100 rev/min) steel cylinder. The wear-resistance correlates well with the ratio of the volume fraction of tungsten carbide to that of graphite (WC/graphite); there is a minimum in weight loss at a ratio near unity. This effect is explained in terms of powder coating with graphite during blending, which affects grain-boundary formation and grain growth during sintering; supporting metallographic evidence is given. The wear-debris particle size produced is related to wear; the wear rate increases with increasing particle size. Residual porosity in the materials reduces wear-resistance. The wear rate does not correlate with hardness or coefficient of friction; the results of wear tests in oil or water are very similar to those for tests run in air.     

Influence of Tempering Time on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of AISI M42 High-Speed Steel

AISI M42 high-speed steel is prone to fracture as a result of its brittle martensitic microstructure together with abundant carbides located at the grain boundaries. In this study, a series of property tests including hardness, impact toughness, and wear loss were performed to study the effect of tempering conditions on the mechanical properties of AISI M42 high-speed steel over holding time ranging from 1 to 20 hours. The effects of the tempering time on the characteristics and growth of carbides were also investigated. The results indicated that carbides in the experimental steels were obviously coarsened when the tempering time exceeded 4 hours. The dimension of the carbides increased, while the volume fraction decreased with the increasing tempering time, and the grain sizes were significantly augmented due to the reducing of small carbides. Moreover, the dislocation density decreased with the increasing tempering time, which led to the reducing of the yield stress of high-speed steel. An appropriate holding time (4 hours) resulted in fine-scale secondary carbides and a smaller grain size, which efficiently improved the impact toughness and wear resistance simultaneously. Nevertheless, a prolonged tempering time (>?4 hours) promoted the coarsening and coalescence of carbides, which were detrimental to the impact toughness and wear resistance. Consequently, the formation of fine-scale secondary carbides is the major influential factor to improve both the wear resistance and impact toughness.     

变质处理对耐磨耐蚀铸铁组织及性能的影响

 为了提高材料在水泥混凝土搅拌和输送工况下的使用性能,以新研制的耐磨耐蚀铸铁为对象,采用复合变质处理的方法研究了变质剂加入量对该试验合金铸铁组织、力学性能和耐腐蚀磨损性能的影响。研究结果表明,复合变质处理可以细化耐磨耐蚀铸铁基体组织、消除柱状枝晶,改善碳化物形态、尺寸及分布,使碳化物由变质前的粗大棒条状变为均匀分布的短棒状和颗粒状,消除了粗大片状碳化物对材料基体的危害,使耐磨耐蚀铸铁的性能得到改善。变质剂加入量增加,耐磨耐蚀铸铁的冲击韧度和耐磨耐蚀性能均有较大提高。与变质前相比,加入0.25%和0.50%复合变质剂处理的试验合金铸铁,其冲击韧度和相对耐腐蚀磨损性能分别提高了22.9%、58.3%和16%、23%,基体硬度略有降低,达到了预期效果。     

WC-20%Co添加陶瓷颗粒ZrO2的试验研究

利用热等静压真空烧结工艺制备了4种不同含量ZrO 2(3Y)的WC-20 %Co硬质合金.利用光学、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)进行了微观组织观察,并对试样进行了硬度测试、抗弯强度、冲击韧性和耐磨性的力学性能测试,试验结果表明ZrO 2(3Y)在WC-20 %Co基体中呈球形,均匀分布在Co相和WC相中,添加了ZrO 2(3Y)的WC-20 %Co的硬质合金抗弯强度和冲击韧性明显提高,耐磨性能有明显改善,硬度指标变化不大.     

The influence of heat treatment on the high-stress abrasion resistance and fracture toughness of alloy white cast irons

The influence of a range of austenitizing and subcritical (tempering) heat treatments on the high-stress abrasion resistance and fracture toughness of four commercially significant grades of alloy white cast iron was investigated. Complementing an earlier study^[1] on the influence of a more limited range of heat treatments on the gouging abrasion performance of the same alloys, the results showed that the effect of austenitizing temperature on high-stress abrasion pin test weight loss differed for each alloy. With increasing austenitizing temperature, these results ranged from a substantial improvement in wear performance and retention of hardness through to vir-tually no change in wear performance and substantial falls in hardness. Fracture toughness, however, increased markedly in all alloys with increasing austenitizing temperature. Tempering treatments in the range 400 °C to 600 °C, following hardening at the austenitizing temperature used commonly in industrial practice for each alloy, produced significant changes in both hard-ness and wear performance, but negligible changes in fracture toughness. Most importantly, the data showed that selection of the correct temperature for subcritical heat treatment to reduce the retained austenite content for applications involving repeated impact loading is critical if abrasion resistance is not to suffer.     

Effects of Rare Earths and Al on Structure and Performance of High Chromium Cast Iron Containing Wolfram

High chromiumcast ironis ani mportant grade ofwear-resistant material.It exhibits high hardness,ex-cellent wear resistance,andlowdeflection onrupture.Moreover,combined properties of high chromiumcastiron are better than that of other white cast irons.Therefore,it has many applications[1~4]in concrete,electric power,mine,metallurgy,and especially ap-plicationin ball mill with large diameter subjected toheavy i mpact loading[5].However,the brittle natureof this material often causesfailure under…     

WC–Co硬质合金摩擦磨损行为的分子动力学模拟

利用分子动力学模拟研究了WC–Co硬质合金在不同条件下的摩擦过程,分析了晶粒尺寸、摩擦载荷和滑动速率等因素对硬质合金摩擦磨损行为的影响,从原子尺度揭示了硬质合金发生摩擦磨损的微观机制。结果表明,随晶粒尺寸增大,相比于晶粒转动,Co相和WC中的位错滑移逐渐在摩擦引起的塑性变形机制中起主导作用。摩擦载荷增大会导致易变形的Co粘结相被挤出表面而首先去除,通过减小晶粒尺寸可以抑制Co相的挤出–磨损机制,进而提高硬质合金的抗滑动磨损性能。滑动速率升高会降低磨损速率,主要原因是在高速滑动过程中,亚表层各相中位错的形核扩展缺乏持续的驱动应力,位错密度较低,WC不易发生断裂,Co相被挤出表面造成的磨损程度明显减轻。     

无粘结相WC基硬质合金研究进展

无粘结相WC基硬质合金具有传统硬质合金无可比拟的优异耐磨性、抗腐蚀性,极佳的抛光性和抗氧化性,是集陶瓷的硬度和硬质合金的韧性于一身的结合体。但无粘结相WC基硬质合金对碳含量比传统的WC-Co硬质合金更为敏感,同时面临脆性及难于致密化等问题。文章对无粘结相WC基硬质合金国内外近几年取得的一些研究成果进行了综述。     

Microstructure and Abrasive Wear Behavior of Medium Carbon Low Alloy Martensitic Abrasion Resistant Steel

The effect of processing parameters such as hot rolling and heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties was investigated for a new 0.27mass% C and Ni,Mo-free low alloy martensitic abrasion resistant steel.The three-body impact abrasive wear behavior was also analyzed.The results showed that two-step controlled rolling besides quenching at 880℃and tempering at 170℃could result in optimal mechanical property:the Brinell hardness,tensile strength,elongation and-40 ℃impact toughness were 531,1 530 MPa,11.8% and 58J,respectively.The microstructure was of fine lath martensite with little retained austenite.Three-body impact abrasive wear results showed that wear mechanism was mainly of plastic deformation fatigue when the impact energy was 2J, and the relative wear resistance was 1.04times higher than that of the same grade compared steel under the same working condition.The optimal hardness and toughness match was the main reason of higher wear resistance.