Optimizing friction stir welding parameters to maximize tensile strength of AA2219 aluminum alloy joints

AA2219 aluminium alloy (Al-Cu-Mn alloy) has gathered wide acceptance in the fabrication of lightweight structures requiring a high strength-to-weight ratio and good corrosion resistance. In contrast to the fusion welding processes that are routinely used for joining structural aluminium alloys, the friction stir welding (FSW) process is an emerging solid state joining process in which the material that is being welded does not melt and recast. This process uses a non-consumable tool to generate frictional heat in the abutting surfaces. The welding parameters such as tool rotational speed, welding speed, axial force etc., and the tool pin profile play a major role in determining the joint strength. An attempt has been made here to develop a mathematical model to predict the tensile strength of friction stir welded AA2219 aluminium alloy by incorporating FSW process parameters. A central composite design with four factors and five levels has been used to minimize the number of experimental conditions. The response surface method (RSM) has been used to develop the model. The developed mathematical model has been optimized using the Hooke and Jeeves search technique to maximize the tensile strength of the friction stir welded AA2219 aluminium alloy joints.     

New technique of in situ rolling friction stir welding

Abstract

A new technique of in situ rolling friction stir welding (IRFSW) has been developed to reduce the residual stress and distortion. It can eliminate the weld flashes and improve corrosion resistance of the FSW seam. A new kind of FSW tool consisting of rolling balls was designed to achieve IRFSW. The residual stresses across the weld were measured by ultrasonic stress measurement experimental installation. The 3·5%NaCl solution was used to corrode the surface of welded joint, and corrosion current and potential were determined by an electrochemical analyser. The results shown that the residual tensile stress was reduced, the weld flashes were eliminated, and the corrosion resistance was improved. By applying IRFSW, the reduction of distortion was ～34·4% compared with that of conventional FSW joint for aluminium plant with 3 mm in thickness and 300 mm in length.     

Developing an Empirical Relationship to Predict Tensile Strength of Friction Stir Welded AA2219 Aluminum Alloy

AA2219 aluminum alloy (Al-Cu-Mn alloy) has gathered wide acceptance in the fabrication of lightweight structures requiring a high strength-to-weight ratio and good corrosion resistance. Friction stir welding (FSW) process is an emerging solid state joining process in which the material that is being welded does not melt and recast. This process uses a nonconsumable tool to generate frictional heat in the abutting surfaces. The welding parameters such as tool rotational speed, welding speed, axial force, etc., and tool pin profile play a major role in deciding the joint strength. An attempt has been made to develop an empirical relationship between FSW variables to predict tensile strength of the friction stir welded AA2219 aluminum alloy. To obtain the desired strength, it is essential to have a complete control over the relevant process parameters to maximize the tensile strength on which the quality of a weldment is based. Therefore, it is very important to select and control the welding process parameter for obtaining maximum strength. To achieve this various prediction methods such as response surface method (RSM), analysis of variance (ANOVA), Student’s t-test, coefficient of determination, etc., can be applied to define the desired output variables through developing mathematical models to specify the relationship between the output parameters and input variables. Four factors, five levels central composite design have been used to minimize number of experimental conditions. The developed mathematical relationship can be effectively used to predict the tensile strength of FSW joints of AA2219 aluminum alloy at 95% confidence level.     

A Comparative Analysis of the Impact of Tool Design to Fatigue Behavior of Single-Sided and Double-Sided Welded Butt Joints of EN AW 6082-T6 Alloy

In this paper, the results of fatigue behavior on friction stir welded joints of aluminum alloy EN AW 6082-T6 are reported. In particular, the study presents the influence of the geometry of a welding tool on fatigue strengths and tensile strengths. The test joints were prepared as single side welded and double side welded by FSW. The welding was performed at various linear welding speeds (224, 560, and 900 mm/min) and one rotational speed of 710 rev./min using three different tool shapes. The results of macro examination and tensile test led to the selection of a single set of tool movement parameters at which the test joints for fatigue test were made. Samples were tested in two states of surface condition, i.e., “as-welded” and with mechanically removed marks left by rotating and moving tool during FSW process. Studies have shown that fatigue behavior of FSW joints depends on the tool shape used in the welding process as well as the surface condition of welded joints and manner of joint production.     

Analysis of process parameters effects on dissimilar friction stir welding of AA1100 and A441 AISI steel

Abstract

A prominent benefit of friction stir welding process is to join plates with dissimilar material. In this study, an attempt is made to find effects of tool offset, plunge depth, welding traverse speed and tool rotational speed on tensile strength, microhardness and material flow in dissimilar friction stir welding of AA1100 aluminium alloy and A441 AISI steel plates. Here, one factor at a time experimental design was utilised for conducting the experiments. Results indicated the strongest joint obtained at 1·3?mm tool offset and 0·2?mm plunge depth when the tool rotational speed and linear speed were 800?rev min^??1 and 63?mm min^??1 respectively. The maximum tensile strength of welded joints with mentioned optimal parameters was 90% aluminium base metal. Fracture locations in tensile test at all samples were in aluminium sides. Owing to the formation of intermetallic compounds at high tool rotational speed, the microhardness of joint interface goes beyond that of A441 AISI steel.     

Friction stir welding of aluminium 7136-T76511 extrusions

Abstract

This research programme evaluates the as welded properties of Al 7136-T76511 extrusions joined through friction stir welding (FSW). Microstructural characterisation and mechanical testing were performed on the baseline material and on panels friction stir welded at 250 and 350 rev min^–1 (all other weld parameters held constant). Transmission electron microscopy revealed the microstructural features in each of the unique weld regions and demonstrated that the precipitate density and morphology in these regions correlates with the temperature profile produced by the FSW process. A thermal model of FSW is developed that utilises an energy based scaling factor to account for tool slip. The slip factor is derived from an empirical relationship between the ratio of the maximum welding temperature to the solidus temperature and energy per unit length of weld. The thermal model successfully predicts the maximum welding temperatures and profiles over a range of energy levels. The mechanical behaviour after welding is correlated to the temperature distribution predicted by the model and to the observed microstructural characteristics. As welded mechanical properties of the alloy trended positively with the energy per unit length of weld, i.e. the highest joint efficiency was achieved at the highest welding temperature.     

Simulation of Tensile Behavior in Friction Stir Welded and Superplastically Formed-Titanium 6Al-4V alloy

A hybrid numerical and experimental study was undertaken to evaluate the performance of friction stir welded (FSW) and superplastically formed friction stir welded (SPF-FSW) titanium joints. This paper presents the numerical models which were developed to simulate mechanical response of FSW and SPF-FSW joints. The simulation results were compared to experimentally determined behavior characteristics of the joints to assess the validity of the modeling approach. It was found that numerical modeling have simulated successfully the tensile behavior of a FSW joint agreeing with the experimental results. This method also adequately simulated the tensile behavior of a SPF-FSW joint, but due to geometrical influences, there are discrepancies between the numerical results and experimental observations.     

Multi-Response Optimization of Friction-Stir-Welded AA1100 Aluminum Alloy Joints

AA1100 aluminum alloy has gathered wide acceptance in the fabrication of light weight structures. Friction stir welding process (FSW) is an emerging solid state joining process in which the material that is being welded does not melt and recast. The process and tool parameters of FSW play a major role in deciding the joint characteristics. In this research, the relationships between the FSW parameters (rotational speed, welding speed, axial force, shoulder diameter, pin diameter, and tool hardness) and the responses (tensile strength, hardness, and corrosion rate) were established. The optimal welding conditions to maximize the tensile strength and minimize the corrosion rate were identified for AA1100 aluminum alloy and reported here.     

Friction stir welding of dissimilar A319 and A356 aluminium cast alloys

Abstract

In the present investigation, the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of dissimilar A319 and A356 cast Al alloys plates joined by friction stir welding (FSW) were evaluated. The effect of tool rotational and welding speeds as well as the post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) on such properties was investigated. Post-weld heat treatment was carried out at a solutionising temperature of 540°C for 12 h followed by aging at 155°C for 6 h. For the as welded specimens, the welded zone (WZ) exhibited higher hardness values when compared with the A319 and A356 parent alloys. The peak hardness at the WZ was found to increase by increasing the tool rotational speed and/or reducing the welding speed. In contrast, the post-weld heat treated (PWHTed) specimens exhibited lower hardness values at the WZ than the parent alloys. For PWHTed specimens, the peak hardness at the WZ was found to decrease by increasing the tool rotational speed and/or reducing the welding speed. Tensile tests results demonstrate that, for the as welded specimens, the tensile fracture took place on A356 side where the hardness was minimal. While for PWHTed specimens, the fracture took place at the WZ. Increasing the tool rotational speed reducing both tensile and yield strengths, but increases the ductility of the joint.     

LF6/LD10铝合金搅拌摩擦焊工艺参数对接头性能的影响

通过LF6／LD10铝合金搅拌摩擦焊（FSW）的工艺试验研究，分析了工艺参数对其接头性能的影响。结果表明，当搅拌头的旋转速度值较低时，提高焊接速度有利于提高接头的抗拉强度值。当旋转速度值较高时，提高焊接速度对接头性能的影响不大。焊接速度较低时，改变旋转速度对于接头的力学性能影响不大；焊接速度较高时，提高旋转速度将会降低接头的力学性能。其它参数相同的条件下，材料所处的位置对接头拉伸性能的影响不大。其它条件相同，在焊接速度和旋转速度都较低时，使用无螺纹的搅拌头所得到的接头性能要优于带有螺纹的搅拌头施焊所得接头的性能；在焊接速度和旋转速度都较高时，搅拌针上的螺纹对于接头的力学性能的影响不大。     

Fatigue properties of friction stir welded butt joint and base metal of MB8 magnesium alloy

The fatigue properties of friction stir welded(FSW) butt joint and base metal of MB8 magnesium alloy were investigated.The comparative fatigue tests were carried out using EHF-EM200K2-070-1A fatigue testing machine for both FSW butt joint and base metal specimens.The fatigue fractures were observed and analyzed using a scanning electron microscope of JSM-6063 LA type.The experimental results show that the fatigue performance of the FSW butt joint of MB8 magnesium alloy is sharply decreased.The conditional fatigue limit(2 × 10~6) of base metal and welded butt joint is about77.44 MPa and 49.91 MPa,respectively.The conditional fatigue limit(2 × 10~6) of the welded butt joint is 64.45%of that of base metal.The main reasons are that the welding can lead to stress concentration in the flash area,tensile welding residual stress in the welded joint(The residual stress value was 30.5 MPa),as well as the grain size is not uniform in the heat-affected zone.The cleavage steps or quasi-cleavage patterns present on the fatigue fracture surface,the fracture type of the FSW butt joint belongs to a brittle fracture.     

Thermal history in UNS S32205 duplex stainless steel friction stir welds

Consolidated UNS S32205 duplex stainless steel joints welds were performed using a friction stir welding (FSW) process. An experimental set-up was used to record the thermal history of duplex stainless steel FSW joint. For points at equal distance from the weld centreline, temperature measured near the beginning of the weld was lower than that measured in the middle of the welded joint. This was attributed to a non-stationary transfer condition. FSW thermal cycle showed shorter time spent at elevated temperature compared that presented by fusion welding, indicating less propensity to detrimental second phase precipitation. To support temperature measurements with thermocouples, a three-dimensional finite element thermal model of FSW was implemented, which provided a good agreement with experimental data.     

Effect of trailing heat sink on residual stresses and welding distortion in friction stir welding Al sheets

Abstract

This paper investigates a trailing heat sink, which was designed and applied to friction stir welding (FSW) in order to control the residual stresses and welding distortion. Residual stresses, residual plastic strains and welding distortion of 2024-T3 and 5083-H321 Al sheets welded by FSW with and without the trailing heat sink were compared. The optimal placement of the heat sink was discussed. The results revealed that the reductions in peak tensile stresses were 66% for 2024-T3 and 58% for 5083-H321 by application of the trailing heat sink in FSW. In addition, the welding distortion could be reduced drastically by this method. The 5083-H321 sheet with a size of 1000×100×3·5 mm welded by this method was very flat and had almost no distortion. This method achieved in-process control of stresses and welding distortion, without additional complicated work before or after welding operation.     

2195/2219异种材料搅拌摩擦焊接头的组织与性能

对2195-T8与2219-T6薄板进行了搅拌摩擦焊接(FSW)试验。在恒定转速(TRS)的条件下,研究了接头性能与焊接走速(TS)和不同前进侧材料之间的关系。结果表明,在研究采用的参数范围内提高焊接走速有助于增强接头的力学性能;将2195置于前进侧的接头性能要优于2219作为前进侧,而无论何种材料为前进侧,断裂始终发生在2219一侧的焊核边界;纵向拉伸的结果显示,焊核的力学性能强于2219一侧焊核边界材料。同时结合焊缝组织演化,对接头力学性能的演化规律做出了分析。     

高速列车铝合金车身双热源搅拌摩擦焊仿真

高速列车采用超长铝合金型材作为车身新材料。搅拌摩擦焊以固相连接原理成为高铁车身制造新工艺。针对单热源模型不足,考虑搅拌轴肩转动摩擦生热和搅拌头塑变剪切生热,建立搅拌摩擦焊双热源有限元模型。基于传统熔焊方式,实现满足搅拌焊特征的双面挤压型材接头变形设计。通过ANSYS二次开发,完成该工艺移动瞬态热交换数值仿真,获得焊接全程三维温度场分布,仿真结果与试验数据吻合良好。结果表明,该仿真模型可行．仿真结果合理,为高铁车身国产化制造工艺吸收和工艺优化提供参考。     

Comparison of RSM with ANN in predicting tensile strength of friction stir welded AA7039 aluminium alloy joints

Friction stir welding(FSW) is an innovative solid state joining technique and has been employed in aerospace, rail, automotive and marine industries for joining aluminium, magnesium, zinc and copper alloys. The FSW process parameters such as tool rotational speed, welding speed, axial force, play a major role in deciding the weld quality. Two methods, response surface methodology and artificial neural network were used to predict the tensile strength of friction stir welded AA7039 aluminium alloy. The experiments were conducted based on three factors, three-level, and central composite face centered design with full replications technique, and mathematical model was developed. Sensitivity analysis was carried out to identify critical parameters. The results obtained through response surface methodology were compared with those through artificial neural networks.     

Algorithmic optimisation of parameters in tungsten inert gas welding of stainless steel sheet

Abstract

The present paper considers algorithmic optimisation of autogenous manual tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding of four different types of joint using stainless steel sheet of varying thickness from 0.9 to 2.0 mm. First a literature survey is presented, experimental work and the equipment used are described, welding conditions are stated, and the welded joints are represented. Then, experimental results are analysed, assessed, and presented in tables and graphs. Mathematical modelling for the calculation of maximum, minimum, and optimum values of welding current and welding voltage as functions of sheet thickness is described for the four joints. Finally, algorithmic optimisation is described for a particular case, namely, a T joint with a fillet weld. The entire algorithm for optimisation of TIG welding is represented.     

Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of TIG and FSW Joints of a New Al-Mg-Mn-Sc-Zr Alloy

A new Al-5.8%Mg-0.4%Mn-0.25%Sc-0.10%Zr (wt.%) alloy was successfully welded by tungsten inert gas (TIG) and friction stir welding (FSW) techniques, respectively. The mechanical properties and microstructure of the welded joints were investigated by microhardness measurements, tensile tests, and microscopy methods. The results show that the ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation to failure are 358, 234 MPa, and 27.6% for TIG welded joint, and 376, 245 MPa and 31.9% for FSW joint, respectively, showing high strength and superior ductility. The TIG welded joint fails in the heat-affected zone and the fracture of FSW joint is located in stirred zone. Al-Mg-Mn-Sc-Zr alloy is characterized by lots of dislocation tangles and secondary coherent Al₃(Sc,Zr) particles. The superior mechanical properties of the TIG and FSW joints are mainly derived from the Orowan strengthening and grain boundary strengthening caused by secondary coherent Al₃(Sc,Zr) nano-particles (20-40 nm). For new Al-Mg-Mn-Sc-Zr alloy, the positive effect from secondary Al₃(Sc, Zr) particles in the base metal can be better preserved in FSW joint than in TIG welded joint.     

Microstructure and Properties of TIG/FSW Welded Joints of a New Al-Zn-Mg-Sc-Zr Alloy

A new Al-Zn-Mg-Sc-Zr alloy with low Sc content was welded by tungsten inert gas (TIG) and friction stir welding (FSW) techniques. The microstructure and properties of those two welded joints were investigated by property tests and microstructural observations. The results show that the new Al-Zn-Mg-Sc-Zr alloy has desirable welding property. The ultimate tensile strength and welding coefficient of the TIG joint reach 405 MPa and 76.7%, respectively, and in FSW joint those property values reach 490 MPa and 92.6%, respectively. The studied base metal has a deformed fibrous subgrains structure, many nano-scaled Al₃(Sc,Zr) particles, and very fine aging precipitates. In the TIG joint, the fusion zone consists of coarsened dendritic grains and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) has fibrous micro-scaled subgrains. The FSW welded joint is characterized by a weld nugget zone, thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and HAZ. Due to plastic deformation around the rotating pin and anti-recrystallized effectiveness of Al₃(Sc,Zr) particles, the weld nugget zone has a very fine subgrain structure. The TMAZ experiences some dissolution of aging precipitates. Coarsening of aging precipitates was observed in the HAZ. The better mechanical properties of the FSW joint are derived from a fine subgrain structure and homogeneous chemical compositions.     

6061铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接头组织及性能

对厚度6 mm的6061铝合金进行了搅拌摩擦焊对接焊,采用光学显微镜、扫描电子显微镜、拉伸试验机及电化学工作站等设备对焊接接头的金相组织、断口形貌、拉伸性能和腐蚀性能进行了测试和分析.结果 表明,当焊接速度为80 mm/min、旋转速度在600 ～1500 r/min之间时,焊接接头的外观良好,无明显缺陷.随着旋转速度...