Elasto-visco-plastic analysis of welding residual stress

Abstract

In the past three decades, extensive research has focussed on the application of numerical methods for the computation of residual stress. Most commonly, the simulations involved performing weakly coupled thermal mechanical finite element analyses in Lagrangian reference frames assuming rate independent elasto-plastic material response. Nearly all approaches assumed rate independent elasto-plastic material response, which is most appropriate at low to moderately elevated temperatures. At, the high temperatures near the fusion zone, the material response becomes rate dependent and an elasto-visco-plastic model would be more suitable. In 1989, Brown et al. (Int. J. Plast., 1989, 5 , 95–130) proposed a rate dependent constitutive equation (commonly known as Anand's model) to describe the plastic evolution of metals at high temperatures. The objective of this work is twofold: evaluate the suitability of Anand's elasto-visco-plastic model in computing welding residual stress and investigate the feasibility of an Eulerian implementation of Anand's model in modelling welding residual stress. Such an implementation has the potential to reduce computational cost in modelling welding processes, since it is a steady state analysis as compared to the common time incremental Lagrangian analyses. An Eulerian reference frame is also more advantageous in modelling processes with large deformation such as friction stir welding, rolling and extrusion since excessive mesh distortion and re-meshing are no issues as the case of Lagrangian models (Int. J. Mater. Form., 2008, 1 , 1287–1290).     

Improved thermal stress analysis for castings

Abstract

Three algorithms are presented to address three problems in stress analysis of castings: difficulties for enmeshment of complicated casting into finite element meshes, coupling of thermal and stress analysis, and determination of inverse deformation, respectively. An algorithm of conversion of finite difference meshes into finite element meshes is achieved by reformatting the data of meshes. An algorithm of the heat transfer coefficient at the casting/mould interface is presented and the coupling of thermal and stress analysis is realised with the feedback of stress and deformation to heat transfer. Machining allowance is applied as a criterion for deformation evaluation of castings. And insufficient machining allowance is transformed to inverse deformation which is fed back to the original casting design for recalculation of stress and deformation. Therefore, the design of casting with appropriate inverse deformation is obtained. Case studies about a cylinder block and a hydro turbine blade casting are illustrated.     

Evaluation of 2D, 3D and applied plastic strain methods for predicting buckling welding distortion and residual stress

Abstract

Welding induces residual stresses which in thin section structures may cause buckling distortion. The magnitude of longitudinal residual stress is critical in the prediction of buckling distortion, which affects numerous welding applications in the ship building, railroad and other industries. The objectives of this paper are to overview and evaluate modelling procedures for bucking distortion. Moving source two-dimensional (2D), three-dimensional (3D) small deformation, 3D large deformation, and 2D–3D applied plastic strain analyses are evaluated by comparing computed residual stress and distortion against experimental measurements. Guidelines for modelling welding distortion are developed along with an assessment of the efficiency and limitations of the various analysis methods.     

Sensitivity analysis of history dependent material mechanical models for numerical simulation of welding process

Abstract

Yield stress of 6013-T6 aluminium alloy was tested on Gleeble 1500D thermal–mechanical system at predesigned temperatures during different typical thermal cycles, in order to accurately reflect the influence of weld thermal history on material properties. The typical thermal cycles were referred to the temperature field simulation results of real welding process. The changes of yield stress were obtained directly from the stress–strain curves generated by the tensile tests. The tests were more accurate than previous publications, where only the yield stresses at room temperature after thermal history were tested or calculated from microstructure evolution model. Experimental results showed that the changes of yield stress during the cooling stage of typical thermal cycles followed one set of curves. These yield stress–temperature curves were different from those during the heating stage. Temperature and temperature history dependent material model M2 and M3 were established based on the experimental results. M2 model was perfectly plastic model while work hardening effect was considered in M3 model. Compared with conventional temperature dependent material model M1, the distributions of longitudinal residual stress and strain obtained with temperature and temperature history dependent models fit better with published results. Yield stress of the material at the weld zone decreased a lot after having experienced weld thermal history and longitudinal compressive plastic strain at the weld zone recovered to some extent during the cooling stage in M2 and M3 models. These were the main causes for lower peak longitudinal residual tensile stress in M2 and M3 models.     

Influence of local heat treatment on residual stresses in electron beam welding

Abstract

Electron beam welding (EBW), as a high performance welding method, is also subject to requirements of high integrity welds which particularly include residual stresses affecting distortion and fatigue behaviour. In this context multiple beam technique may provide new applications of specific thermal weld treatment. The present work introduces a promising method of local post-heating in a certain distance to the current welding location applying multiple beams for the reduction in residual stresses in EB welded sheet metals. The conducted investigations include finite element analysis (FEA) and stress measurements in the weld seam area. Using a systematic approach within the FEA decisive process parameters are optimised with reference to the achievable reduction in residual stress. All simulation results are validated by experiments applying strain gauges for the stress measurement. Both simulations and experiments revealed a considerable decrease in residual stress achievable by appropriate positioning of additional heat sources combined with the right power input and beam focusing.     

Modifying residual stress levels in rail flash-butt welds using localised rapid post-weld heat treatment and accelerated cooling

Abstract

Flash-butt welding is used in the manufacture of continuously-welded rails. Finished welds typically exhibit high tensile residual stresses in the rail web and at the upper surface of the rail foot, which may increase the risk of fatigue failure in service. An understanding of the influence of the welding process, including post-weld cooling, on the residual stress distribution is necessary to improve the performance of flash-butt welds by post-weld heat treatment (PWHT), since incorrect treatment may have adverse effects on both residual stress and weld material characteristics. A finite element model has been developed to simulate post-weld cooling in flash-butt welded AS60 kg m^–1 rail. Computed thermal histories for normal (air) cooling, rapid PWHT, and accelerated cooling (water spray) were used as inputs to calculate sequentially coupled stress–time histories, including phase transformations. In addition, the localised influence of the initiation time for rapid PWHT, after final upset, on the reduction of tensile residual stresses was investigated. Heating the rail foot immediately after final upset reduced tensile residual stresses in the web region of the weld. Preliminary numerical predictions showed that water quenching the entire weld region too soon after the austenite–pearlite transformation is completed can induce further tensile residual stresses without affecting the microstructure. The results of the numerical analysis can be used to modify the flash-butt welding procedure to lower residual stress levels, and hence improve weld performance.     

Finite element modelling of resistance spot welding of aluminium with spherical tip electrodes

Abstract

A FEM based simulation model of the resistance spot welding process has been developed. The current simulation accounts for the non-uniform current density distribution in the sheet-electrode geometry and the elastoplastic deformation of the sheet due to electrode force, especially with spherical tip electrodes, since these effects are driven by and contribute to the main heat transfer analysis, which is governed by the internal heat generation within the sheet-electrode geometry as well as along the contact surfaces. The latent heat of transformation during melting or solidification, the variation of sheet/sheet contact resistance with temperature, and temperature dependent thermophysical material properties have been incorporated. The model also calculates the local time-temperature history of the sheet-electrode geometry that can be coupled with appropriate metallurgical reactions to determine metallurgical changes and subsequent mechanical properties in both the fusion zone and the HAZ.     

Simulation on the deformation controlling of T-joint LBW with auxiliary heat source for high strength aluminum alloy

To avoid the angular deformation of aluminum alloy T-joint weldments, a new method named welding with auxiliary heat source is proposed. The welding simulation is performed with the commercial finite element software Abaqus and FORTRAN programme encoding a special conical heat source with Gaussian volumetric distribution of flux. The influence of the local model on the temperature, residual stress, and welding deformation distributions is investigated. The findings show that angular deformation achieved through numerical computation completely consists with the experimental result which has proved the effectiveness of the finite element methods developed. Various measurements performed on small-scale welded test specimens provide a data base of experimental results that serves as a bench mark for qualification of the simulation result. Finally, the residual stress and strain states in a T-joint are predicted.     

Finite Element Simulation of Residual Stress Development in Thermally Sprayed Coatings

The coating buildup process of Al₂O₃/TiO₂ ceramic powder deposited on stainless-steel substrate by atmospheric plasma spraying has been simulated by creating thermomechanical finite element models that utilize element death and birth techniques in ANSYS commercial software and self-developed codes. The simulation process starts with side-by-side deposition of coarse subparts of the ceramic layer until the entire coating is created. Simultaneously, the heat flow into the material, thermal deformation, and initial quenching stress are computed. The aim is to be able to predict—for the considered spray powder and substrate material—the development of residual stresses and to assess the risk of coating failure. The model allows the prediction of the heat flow, temperature profile, and residual stress development over time and position in the coating and substrate. The proposed models were successfully run and the results compared with actual residual stresses measured by the hole drilling method.     

Evaluation of through thickness residual stress in multipass butt welded joint by using inherent strain

Abstract

The through thickness residual stress of an eight pass butt welded plate joint is evaluated using inherent strain analysis. The residual stress distribution is obtained in detail along the thickness direction from measurements using multiple strain gauges. The residual stresses agree with the results of the thermal elastic–plastic analysis as well as the values obtained by direct measurement of the specimen surface, which is not used in inherent strain analysis. These results indicate that both inherent strain analysis and thermal elastic–plastic analysis are effective in evaluating through thickness residual stress. Therefore, each analysis method should be chosen after considering the object to be evaluated and the characteristics to be analysed.     

Numerical modeling of vibrothermography based on plastic deformation

This paper investigates vibrothermography for the detection of fatigue cracks in aluminum beams using combined experimental and finite element (FE) analyses. First, a FE modal analysis is carried out to predict the optimal excitation parameters to be employed in experimental investigations performed with an infrared camera. A coupled thermo-mechanical model involving plastic deformation heating is then built and used to simulate the thermographic inspection process. The model shows that the stress at the crack faces exceeds the material’s yield stress confirming that the heat generated during plastic deformation leads to crack detection. The model also predicts the detection of cracks as short as 1 mm that is confirmed experimentally with a maximum error of 0.46% on the temperature evolution. The Fourier transform applied on the numerical thermal response shows that the specimen’s temperature at the crack vicinity changes according to the excitation frequency and presents harmonics due to the nonlinearity induced by the crack.     

分段退焊对角接接头焊接残余应力及变形的影响

基于热-弹塑性有限元理论,以Abaqus软件为平台进行角接接头焊后残余应力及变形的分析,采用分段移动热源模型并利用Fortran语言开发热源子程序,分别采用直通焊和分段退焊两种方式进行角接接头焊接温度场、残余应力及变形的数值模拟分析.结果表明:横向变形是角接接头最主要的变形;角接接头焊接在焊缝端口处的残余应力为压应力,...     

Ni-Cr-W-Mo合金曲母线异型件多道次热旋成形数值模拟

针对热旋成形过程中起旋断裂以及边缘开裂等零件质量问题,基于ABAQUS/Explicit平台建立了Ni-Cr-W-Mo高温合金曲母线异型件多道次热旋弹塑性有限元模型,研究了多道次热变形过程中的应力、应变规律以及缺陷形成机制,探讨了工艺参数对第2道次热旋成形过程的影响规律,最后通过实验验证了模型的可靠性。结果表明:在第1道次热旋过程中,由于应力差的存在,很容易使板材内外表面产生不均匀变形,甚至拉裂;在第2道次成形过程起始阶段(2~5 s内),等效应变增大过快,易出现材料堆积及起皱现象;此外,当旋轮圆角半径(R=10 mm)及旋轮进给比(f=1.0 mm·r~(-1))过大时,均会导致旋压件产生褶皱现象。     

Non-isothermal thermomechanical metallurgical model and its application to welding simulations

Abstract

This paper presents a thermomechanical metallurgical macroscopic model for steels. The model is based on an existing model that is extended for non-isothermal behaviour in combination with phase transformations. The model and its numerical implementation in ABAQUS are described using vector notation for stress and strain tensors. Model parameters are presented for the dual phase steel DP600 and the structural steel S355. For DP600, thermomechanical model parameters, i.e. hardening and strain rate dependency, have been obtained by fitting temperature and strain rate dependent tensile tests. A metallurgical model was implemented using data obtained from phase field models for the austenite growth and continuous cooling transition diagrams for phase transformations from austenite to low temperature phases. The model is applied to welding simulations of DP600 overlap joints and S355 T joints. The final distortion is compared to experiments and it is shown that the model presented is able to reproduce the experimental results very well.     

Numerical simulation on temperature and stress fields of welding with weaving

Abstract

Although welding with weaving had been widely adopted to improve welding efficiency, the effects of weaving arc on temperature and stress fields were not clearly understood. In the present paper, a conversion of coordinates was implanted in a finite element model to improve the calculation precision and comprehend the characteristic of welding with weaving. Comparing with the results of the welding without weaving, a characteristic with lower peak temperature and wider weld bead was presented during the welding with weaving, and the temperature gradients near the weld pool was steeper. The results also indicated that the transverse residual stress of welding with weaving was greater than that of welding without weaving, while the longitudinal residual stress was similar. Both temperatures and residual stresses were compared with those of the experiments.     

Numerical simulation on residual stress and deformation for WAAM parts of aluminum alloy based on temperature function method

Wire arc additive manufacture(WAAM) is a new technique to fabricate large-scale complex aluminum alloy components.However, the performance of the parts is critically influenced by residual stresses and deformation. A sequentially thermal-mechanical coupled model of residual stress and deformation for aluminum alloy WAAM parts was established based on commercial FE software ABAQUS. The temperature field was calculated by the moving heat source(MHS) method. The temperature function was obtained according to the distribution of the peak temperature. Furthermore, the MHS method and segmented temperature function(STF) method were used to calculate the residual stress and deformation. The results show that the STF method satisfies both the efficiency and accuracy requirements. 1-segment, 3-segment, and 5-segment STF methods can shorten the time for mechanical analysis by 91%, 79%, 63%, respectively.The error of the residual stress and deformation are all less than 20%. STF method provides an effective way to predict the residual stress and deformation of large-scale WAAM parts.     

基于温度函数法的铝合金电弧增材制造残余应力与变形数值模拟

电弧增材制造是制造大型复杂铝合金部件的新方法,但残余应力和变形对制造件的性能有重要影响. 建立了铝合金电弧增材制造件残余应力和变形的顺序热-力耦合有限元模型,采用移动热源法计算了增材过程的温度场,根据峰值温度的分布和演变特征确定了温度函数的提取方案,并分别采用移动热源法和温度函数法进行了残余应力和变形计算.结果表明,1段,3段,5段温度函数法分别将力学分析时间缩短91%,79%,63%,残余应力和基板变形误差均在20%以内,在满足计算精度的前提下显著提高了计算效率,为大型铝合金电弧增材制造件残余应力与变形的预测提供了途径.     

Evolution of residual stresses in dissimilar steel surfacing layers during process of post-weld heat treatment

Abstract

Residual stress relaxation during post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) is a thermodynamic process, which is affected not only by the heat treatment process, but also by the welding residual stress. In this study, the residual stresses in as welded and heat treated surfacing metal were measured using blind hole and X-ray method. The results reveal that the welding residual stresses are compressive at the surface of the weld and tensile at inner weld. However, after PWHT, the residual stresses at surface and inner weld change to the opposite state. Finite element simulations show that the differences of expansion coefficients between base metal and filler material are the main factor to the changes of stress state. The experimental results verify that the expansion coefficients of base metal and filler materials have been changed greatly after long soaking at high temperature.     

A two stage approach for the validation of welding and heat treatment models used in product development

Abstract

Many components used in the aerospace industry have complex shape and are manufactured from high strength materials. Performing large scale tests is costly and time consuming, therefore, simulation tools are needed to support an effective product development process. Using manufacturing simulations during product development requires a validated model of the material and manufacturing process. In this paper, a validation scheme is proposed for thermomechanical models of welding and post-weld heat treatment. The scheme was investigated by comparing simulations using shell elements with experimental results, which showed good agreement when predicting residual stresses after welding, but an overestimation of the out-of-plane deformations when simulating both welding and heat treatment. However, the simulations showed that the outof-plane deformation is strongly influenced by the initial geometry. It can be concluded that the simulation model is adequately accurate to be used in concept evaluation.