Mediating team effectiveness in the context of collaborative learning: The importance of team and task awareness

Learning teams in higher education executing a collaborative assignment are not always effective. To remedy this, there is a need to determine and understand the variables that influence team effectiveness. This study aimed at developing a conceptual framework, based on research in various contexts on team effectiveness and specifically team and task awareness. Core aspects of the framework were tested to establish its value for future experiments on influencing team effectiveness. Results confirmed the importance of shared mental models, and to some extent mutual performance monitoring for learning teams to become effective, but also of interpersonal trust as being conditional for building adequate shared mental models. Apart from the importance of team and task awareness for team effectiveness it showed that learning teams in higher education tend to be pragmatic by focusing primarily on task aspects of performance and not team aspects. Further steps have to be taken to validate this conceptual framework on team effectiveness.     

Using computer supported collaborative learning strategies for helping students acquire self-regulated problem-solving skills in mathematics

The main objective of this paper is to investigate the effectiveness of a proposed computer-based instructional method in Primary Education for self-regulated problem solving. The proposed instructional method is based on Sternberg’s model of problem solving within an authentic context. It consists of three main phases: observation, collaboration and semi-structured guidance. The ultimate learning objective is to augment the autonomous problem-solving skills of primary school children. In our study the Synergo tool was used, which is a synchronous computer supported collaborative learning tool, as well as the Moodle learning management system. The context which frames the method is authentic, very close to a students’ realistic learning situation. The findings of this study advocate that students can increase their problem-solving skills in a relatively short period of time. At the same time, they can improve their approach to the solution of a given mathematical problem, performing significant signs of autonomy.     

Analyzing collaborative learning processes automatically: Exploiting the advances of computational linguistics in computer-supported collaborative learning

In this article we describe the emerging area of text classification research focused on the problem of collaborative learning process analysis both from a broad perspective and more specifically in terms of a publicly available tool set called TagHelper tools. Analyzing the variety of pedagogically valuable facets of learners’ interactions is a time consuming and effortful process. Improving automated analyses of such highly valued processes of collaborative learning by adapting and applying recent text classification technologies would make it a less arduous task to obtain insights from corpus data. This endeavor also holds the potential for enabling substantially improved on-line instruction both by providing teachers and facilitators with reports about the groups they are moderating and by triggering context sensitive collaborative learning support on an as-needed basis. In this article, we report on an interdisciplinary research project, which has been investigating the effectiveness of applying text classification technology to a large CSCL corpus that has been analyzed by human coders using a theory-based multi-dimensional coding scheme. We report promising results and include an in-depth discussion of important issues such as reliability, validity, and efficiency that should be considered when deciding on the appropriateness of adopting a new technology such as TagHelper tools. One major technical contribution of this work is a demonstration that an important piece of the work towards making text classification technology effective for this purpose is designing and building linguistic pattern detectors, otherwise known as features, that can be extracted reliably from texts and that have high predictive power for the categories of discourse actions that the CSCL community is interested in.

The concept of flow in collaborative game-based learning

Generally, high-school students have been characterized as bored and disengaged from the learning process. However, certain educational designs promote excitement and engagement. Game-based learning is assumed to be such a design. In this study, the concept of flow is used as a framework to investigate student engagement in the process of gaming and to explain effects on game performance and student learning outcome. Frequency 1550, a game about medieval Amsterdam merging digital and urban play spaces, has been examined as an exemplar of game-based learning. This 1-day game was played in teams by 216 students of three schools for secondary education in Amsterdam. Generally, these students show flow with their game activities, although they were distracted by solving problems in technology and navigation. Flow was shown to have an effect on their game performance, but not on their learning outcome. Distractive activities and being occupied with competition between teams did show an effect on the learning outcome of students: the fewer students were distracted from the game and the more they were engaged in group competition, the more students learned about the medieval history of Amsterdam. Consequences for the design of game-based learning in secondary education are discussed.     

Exploring young students' talk in iPad-supported collaborative learning environments

In the few years since its release, Apple's iPad has generated much discussion about its potential to support student learning at all levels of the education system. Much of this has focused on its physical and technical attributes, such as portability, touch-display, connectivity, and large array of apps. However, a few studies have begun to explore possible advantages of iPads being used as public work spaces, enabling students to interact more collaboratively when creating learning outputs. These studies point to other affordances such as the iPad's ability to lay flat on a desk or be propped at a convenient angle, its wide viewing range and multi-user accessible interface, as being particularly relevant in supporting collaboration.Between June and November 2013, researchers from the University of Waikato used a specifically developed ‘observeware’ app to capture display and audio data while young students (5 year olds) were using iPads in pairs for developing numeracy, literacy and problem-solving/decision-making skills. The study used Mercer's (1994) talk types framework to explore the nature of talk students engaged in while they were using the iPads and interacting with each other and their teacher, and also how features of the device may have influenced this.Results indicated exceptionally high levels of on-task talk, but that this was mostly of an affirming and non-critical nature and unsupportive of outcome improvement or refinement. While the iPad offered unique potential as a shared, public learning device, the pedagogical role of the teacher in realising this by helping students learn appropriate ‘ground rules’ to raise talk quality, was critical. This article details the methodology used and the results of the study. It discusses the important role teachers play in helping young students build oral-interaction strategies to capitalise on high levels of learning engagement, and the unique features of these devices.     

Supporting collaborative learning in engineering design

In team-based project courses, collaborative learning is the dominant learning mode. Collaborative learning has been shown to increase individual learning through co-construction and personal reflection. Rapid adoption of web-based communication and mobile computing by students provide opportunities to take advantage of computer-supported collaboration for engineering education. We present preliminary findings on a computer environment, the Kiva Web, that supports the activities of group collaboration for interdisciplinary engineering design teams. We have employed methods from human–computer interaction (HCI) to iterate on the design in the context of use. In this paper, we discuss the evolution of the Kiva Web and the implications for both student design teams and professional design teams.     

Exploring regulatory processes during a computer-supported collaborative learning task using process mining

The purpose of this study was to explore sequences of social regulatory processes during a computer-supported collaborative learning task and their relationship to group performance. Analogous to self-regulation during individual learning, we conceptualized social regulation both as individual and as collaborative activities of analyzing, planning, monitoring and evaluating cognitive and motivational aspects during collaborative learning. We analyzed the data of 42 participants working together in dyads. They had 90 min to develop a common handout on a statistical topic while communicating only via chat and common editor. The log files of chat and editor were coded regarding activities of social regulation. Results show that participants in dyads with higher group performance (N = 20) did not differ from participants with lower group performance (N = 22) in the frequencies of regulatory activities. In an exploratory way, we used process mining to identify process patterns for high versus low group performance dyads. The resulting models show clear parallels between high and low achieving dyads in a double loop of working on the task, monitoring, and coordinating. Moreover, there are no major differences in the process of high versus low achieving dyads. Both results are discussed with regard to theoretical and empirical issues. Furthermore, the method of process mining is discussed.     

Exploring different technological platforms for supporting co-located collaborative games in the classroom

Computer Supported Collaborative Learning is a pedagogical approach that can be used for deploying educational games in the classroom. However, there is no clear understanding as to which technological platforms are better suited for deploying co-located collaborative games, nor the general affordances that are required. In this work we explore two different technological platforms for developing collaborative games in the classroom: one based on augmented reality technology and the other based on multiple-mice technology. In both cases, the same game was introduced to teach electrostatics and the results were compared experimentally using a real class.     

Prototyping a collaborative learning tool for nurses

Abstract  A Nurse Collaborative Learning (Nurse Co-Learn) tool was designed and developed to help the Department of Nursing to introduce Information Technology to undergraduate nursing students. The MUCH (Many Using and Creating Hypermedia) system was used as the basis for this tool. The Nurse Co-Learn tool supported coordination between clinic personnel. Students were required to take on a role in the clinic, and to perform the relevant tasks for that role. Through participating in this role-playing game students learned word processing, database and spreadsheet skills, whilst performing authentic tasks. Three prototypes were developed and trialled; this paper highlights the features of the prototypes and the responses of the users.     

The role of errors in learning computer software

Little research has been done examining the role of errors in learning computer software. It is argued, though, that understanding the errors that people make while learning new software is important to improving instruction. The purpose of the current study was to (a) develop a meaningful and practical system for classifying computer software errors, (b) determine the relative effect of specific error types on learning, and (c) examine the impact of computer ability on error behaviour. Thirty-six adults (18 males, 18 females), representing three computer ability levels (beginner, intermediate, and advanced), volunteered to think out loud while they learned the rudimentary steps (moving the cursor, using a menu, entering data) required to use a spreadsheet software package. Classifying errors according to six basic categories (action, orientation, knowledge processing, seeking information, state, and style) proved to be useful. Errors related to knowledge processing, seeking information, and actions were observed most frequently, however, state, style, and orientation errors had the largest immediate negative impact on learning. A more detailed analysis revealed that subjects were most vulnerable when observing, trying to remember, and building mental models. The effect of errors was partially related to computer ability, however beginner, intermediate and advanced users were remarkably similar with respect to the prevalence of errors.     

The learning kit project: Software tools for supporting and researching regulation of collaborative learning

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is a dynamic and varied area of research. Ideally, tools for CSCL support and encourage solo and group learning processes and products. However, most CSCL research does not focus on supporting and sustaining the co-construction of knowledge. We identify four reasons for this situation and identify three critical resources every collaborator brings to collaborations that are underutilized in CSCL research: (a) prior knowledge, (b) information not yet transformed into knowledge that is judged relevant to the task(s) addressed in collaboration, and (c) cognitive processes used to construct these informational resources. Finally, we introduce gStudy, a software tool designed to advance research in the learning sciences. gStudy helps learners manage cognitive load so they can re-assign cognitive resources to self-, co-, and shared regulation; and it automatically and unobtrusively traces each user′s engagement with content and the means chosen for cognitively processing content, thus generating real-time performance data about processes of collaborative learning.     

Superiority of collaborative learning with complex tasks: A research note on an alternative affective explanation

Kirschner, Paas, and Kirschner (2009c) used the theoretical framework of cognitive load to explain why the learning of a group of collaborating individuals was more efficient than that of individuals learning alone with high-complexity tasks but not with low-complexity tasks. The authors argued that collaboration circumvented the limitations of an individual’s working memory by creating an expanded cognitive capacity and by allowing for the distribution of cognitive load among group members. Inspired by research on efficacy, this study explored an alternative affective explanation of the results. By measuring the amount of mental effort learners expected to invest in working on a learning task before actually carrying out the task, this study showed that learners who had to collaboratively solve a high-complexity problem expected to invest less mental effort than learners who had to solve the problem alone. When confronted with low-complexity tasks, the expected amount of mental effort did not differ.     

Student perceptions of collaborative learning,social presence and satisfaction in a blended learning environment: Relationships and critical factors

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of the students’ perceived levels of collaborative learning, social presence and overall satisfaction in a blended learning environment. This research studied the relationship of these three variables and identified critical factors related to them. The participants were 48 graduate students who took a blended-format course in health education and worked on a collaborative group project related to the development of a comprehensive HIV-AIDS prevention plan. Data was collected from the Student Perception Questionnaire and face-to-face interviews. The analysis of quantitative data indicated that student perceptions of collaborative learning have statistically positive relationships with perceptions of social presence and satisfaction. This means that students who perceived high levels of collaborative learning tended to be more satisfied with their distance course than those who perceived low levels of collaborative learning. Similarly, students with high perceptions of collaborative learning perceived high levels of social presence as well. Surprisingly, the relationship between social presence and overall satisfaction was positive but not statistically significant. Interview data revealed that (a) course structure, (b) emotional support, and (c) communication medium were critical factors associated with student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence, and satisfaction. Explanations about findings and implications for instructional design are discussed in the conclusion.     

Examining different types of collaborative learning in a complex computer-based environment: A cognitive load approach

This study compared the effects of two collaborative learning strategies (Open-ended and Task-based) with an individualized learning strategy on individual learning in a computer-based environment. The experiment sought ecological validity by conducting it under real teaching and homework conditions. Ninety-four students from grade 9 participated in a webpage design task. Cognitive load theory was used to predict that the collaborative approaches would outperform the individualized approach due to reduced cognitive load. This hypothesis was confirmed by performance scores and cognitive load only in the case of the Open-ended collaborative learning condition. Evidence was also found that the Open-ended collaborative learning condition outperformed the Task-based collaborative one. It was concluded that in collaborative learning a more Open-ended task design together with moderate independent sub-task requirements leads to more effective learning.     

Multiple Mice based collaborative one-to-one learning

Exchange is a collaborative learning application, originally developed for wirelessly interconnected Pocket PCs, that provides support for students and a teacher performing a face-to-face computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL) activity in a Single Input/Single Display (SISD) mode. We extend the application to support a single display groupware (SDG) mode. In this new version, named Exchange-MM, three users each with their own mouse (Multiple Mice) interact on a single display with mediation by a technological network. The original collaborative interaction is maintained. We describe a collaborative learning activity and the software architecture that supports both interaction modes, and also present a usability analysis of the activity conducted with second-grade schoolchildren. The results show that as in SISD mode, in SDG with Multiple Mice (MM) the technological network improves communication, negotiation, interactivity, coordination and appropriability between members of collaborative learning groups.     

Competitive collaborative learning

Intuitively, it is clear that trust or shared taste enables a community of users to make better decisions over time, by learning cooperatively and avoiding one another's mistakes. However, it is also clear that the presence of malicious, dishonest users in the community threatens the usefulness of such collaborative learning processes. We investigate this issue by developing algorithms for a multi-user online learning problem in which each user makes a sequence of decisions about selecting products or resources. Our model, which generalizes the adversarial multi-armed bandit problem, is characterized by two key features:

(1)

The quality of the products or resources may vary over time.

(2)

Some of the users in the system may be dishonest, Byzantine agents.

Decision problems with these features underlie applications such as reputation and recommendation systems in e-commerce, and resource location systems in peer-to-peer networks. Assuming the number of honest users is at least a constant fraction of the number of resources, and that the honest users can be partitioned into groups such that individuals in a group make identical assessments of resources, we present an algorithm whose expected regret per user is linear in the number of groups and only logarithmic in the number of resources. This bound compares favorably with the naïve approach in which each user ignores feedback from peers and chooses resources using a multi-armed bandit algorithm; in this case the expected regret per user would be polynomial in the number of resources.     

Applying adaptive swarm intelligence technology with structuration in web-based collaborative learning

One of the key challenges in the promotion of web-based learning is the development of effective collaborative learning environments. We posit that the structuration process strongly influences the effectiveness of technology used in web-based collaborative learning activities. In this paper, we propose an ant swarm collaborative learning (ASCL) environment based on a swarm intelligence system (SIS) that structures opportunities for effective collaboration and learning in a dynamic way. The results of our experiments indicate that: (1) the self-organizing behavior of SIS is positively associated with system appropriation; (2) the multi-agent-based mechanism of SIS is positively associated with system appropriation; (3) the cohesive capability of SIS is positively associated with system appropriation; and (4) the learner’s tendency toward system appropriation is positively associated with learning effectiveness. Our findings also show that learners in an ASCL environment outperform their counterparts in a general web-based learning (GWL) environment. We conclude that different types of technological support can influence the achievement in a web-based learning environment.     

Assessing online collaborative learning: process and product

The assessment of online collaborative study presents new opportunities and challenges, both in terms of separating the process and product of collaboration, and in the support of skills development. The purpose of this paper is to explore the role of assessment with respect to the processes and products of online collaborative study. It describes a qualitative case study of staff and students perspectives on two UK Open University courses which have used a variety of models of online collaborative assessment. The findings underline the importance of assessment in ensuring online participation, and in supporting the practice and development of online collaborative learning. They have led to a number of recommendations for the assessment of online collaborative learning.     

Computer-supported team-based learning: The impact of motivation,enjoyment and team contributions on learning outcomes

The benefits of teamwork and collaboration have long been advocated by many educational theories, such as constructivist and social learning models. Among the various applications of collaborative learning, the iterative team-based learning (TBL) process proposed by Michaelsen, Fink, and Knight (2002) has been successfully used in the classroom without computer support. This paper describes the implementation and evaluation results of a classroom application of the TBL process, which was modified to include computer mediation. We call this process computer-supported team-based learning (CS-TBL). This work extends learning in small teams from the traditional classroom to the hybrid classroom where students meet both face-to-face and online by emphasizing the importance of online team interactions. The outcomes are assessed through an evaluation model that considers the impact of motivation, enjoyment and team contributions on learning outcomes. The study results indicate that motivation influences the relationship between team interactions and perceived learning. Enjoyment is affected by motivation and perceptions of team members’ contributions, with the implication that students who perceive that the team interactions are adding value to their education will better enjoy learning and will experience higher-level learning outcomes.