Effect of compaction method on the undrained strength of fiber-reinforced clay

The use of discrete fibers in reinforcing soils is of interest to the geotechnical engineering community. Two limitations exist in experimental studies involving fiber-reinforced clays. First, fiber-reinforced clay specimens are generally prepared in the lab using conventional “impact” compaction, whereas the compaction of clay systems in the field typically involves “kneading” action. Second, the majority of tests reported in the literature use synthetic fibers to the exclusion of other types. This paper addresses these limitations through an experimental triaxial testing program that: (1) supplements the scarce data available in the literature on the undrained load response of clays reinforced with “natural” fibers and that are compacted by “kneading”, and (2) assesses the capacity of the experimental procedures that involve “impact” compaction to produce responses that are relevant to actual field conditions. Results from 73 unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests indicate that the percent improvement in the undrained strength of the fiber-reinforced clay is highly dependent on the compaction method, with specimens that are prepared using impact compaction yielding improvements up to three times larger than identical specimens prepared by kneading. This discrepancy in the behavior can be traced back to differences in the fiber orientation distributions between specimens that were compacted by impact and kneading.     

SIMULATION OF SHEAR AND ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSION BEHAVIOR OF NATURALLY DEPOSITED CLAYS BY SUPER/SUBLOADING YIELD SURFACE CAM-CLAY MODEL

Naturally deposited clays exhibit complicated mechanical behavior that differs from that of remolded clays. For example, clay in a normally consolidated state commonly exhibits softening in undrained shear tests or “rewinding” in a heavily overconsolidated state. The Super/subloading Yield Surface Cam-clay model (Asaoka et al., 1998, 2000, 2002) was proposed in an attempt to clarify the complicated mechanical behavior in naturally deposited clays. In this constitutive model, the concepts of “structure,” overconsolidation, anisotropy, and their evolution laws, are introduced into the modified Cam-clay model. In the present study, undrained triaxial compression tests and oedometer tests were carried out on two types of naturally deposited undisturbed clay, Pleistocene clay and Holocene clay, and the behavior was then simulated using the Super/subloading Yield Surface Cam-clay model. The findings of the present study are as follows:

• 1)For the two types of undisturbed clay, the Super/subloading Yield Surface Cam-clay model can simulate undrained triaxial compression behavior ranging from the normally consolidated state to the overconsolidated state, corresponding to various isotropic pressures using a single set of material constants.
• 2)In addition, the model can simulate one-dimensional compression behavior using the same material constants as those used for the simulation of the undrained triaxial compression behavior.
• 3)Through the simulation, the mechanical behavior of Pleistocene clay and Holocene clay, which have different loading histories and have undergone different aging effects, can be described by the different evolution parameters, as well as the elasto-plastic parameters.

     

Mechanisms of quasi-preconsolidation stress development in clays: A rheological model

This paper deals with the development of a mechanistic model for the ageing consolidation behavior of clays with the focus on aspects related to the development of quasi-preconsolidation pressure. The initial use of such pressure in design met with criticism, but field and laboratory evidence, which highlights its significance, continues to accumulate. A nonlinear rheological model is used to numerically simulate the consolidation process of clay in laboratory tests and to identify the basic mechanical parameters that contribute to the development of the quasi-preconsolidation phenomenon. Methods to identify the parameters of the model from oedometer tests are described. It is shown that while the variation in soil modulus can be characterized by a linear form in the virgin compression region, it is nonlinear in the recompression region and is best characterized by a hyperbolic function. Changes to the modulus in the recompression region, due to ageing, is shown to be the dominant cause of the development of the quasi-p_c phenomenon. Observed results as well as numerical simulations demonstrate that specimens that had aged longer show increased quasi-p_c values. While the variation in soil modulus controls the EOP curve of clays, the observed time effects, such as the “vanishing p_c” phenomenon, are controlled primarily by changes in soil viscosity. However, this has no bearing on the development of the quasi-p_c phenomenon.     

Proposal of a Simple Method for Assessing the Susceptibility of Naturally Deposited Clay Grounds to Large Long-Term Settlement due to Embankment Loading

A simple method that utilizes the results of laboratory tests has been proposed for determining the susceptibility of soft clay grounds to large residual consolidation settlement due to embankment loading. It was found that there is a possibility of large long-term settlement if the sensitivity and compression index ratios of the clay material that constitutes the ground are equal to or more than 8.0 and 1.5, respectively. The compression index ratio is defined in this paper as the ratio (Cc/Ccr) of the steepest gradient of the compression curve of an undisturbed sample to that of the remolded sample. Through the SYS Cam-clay model, an elasto-plastic constitutive model that describes the actions of the soil skeleton structure, it was found that clays with large sensitivity and compression index ratios are characterized by initially highly structured soils and that decay/upgradation of the structure can easily occur due to plastic deformation. In addition, by following Schmertmann's graphic method for in-situ compression curve (1953), this paper proposes a method of deducing the in-situ initial conditions from the results of laboratory consolidation tests on undisturbed samples. These investigations revealed not only that large delayed settlement is facilitated in clays, which have higher degrees of structure and faster rates of structural decay, but also that the Δe method and other simple methods of predicting settlement may underestimate the amount of settlement.     

天然沉积结构性黏土的不排水强度性状

通过对福州天然沉积黏土原状样及不同初始含水率重塑样进行三轴固结不排水剪切试验,探讨土结构性对天然沉积黏土强度性状的影响规律及作用机理。研究结果表明：结构性对天然沉积土固结不排水抗剪强度的作用程度受固结压力大小影响可以分为3个阶段：固结压力小于屈服压力阶段,不排水抗剪强度主要由土结构性控制,与应力水平基本无关;土结构逐渐屈服阶段,固结压力大于屈服压力,不排水抗剪强度随固结有效应力的增大逐渐趋于重塑样的强度线;土结构性影响消失阶段,原状样的不排水抗剪强度随固结有效应力的增长规律与重塑样相同。     

Effect of Specimen Size on Unconfined Compressive Strength Properties of Natural Deposits

In order to use the advantages of unconfined compression tests, a new testing procedure using S (or Small size) specimens (15 mm in diameter and 35 mm in height) is proposed and a new portable unconfined compression test apparatus with suction measurement is outlined. The effect of specimen size on unconfined compressive strength properties of natural deposits is discussed from laboratory tests. The standard deviations of the ratios of q_u and E₅₀ values of the S specimens to O (or Ordinary size) specimens (35 mm d and 80 mm h) were in the range of 0.09 to 0.16. The 10% variation from the mean value reflects the homogeneity of soils since the coefficient of variations of the undrained shear strength for the undisturbed and reconstituted soils were 8% to 17% (Matsuo and Shogaki, 1988). In an engineering sense, there was no difference in shear strength and deformation characteristics between the S and O specimens for soils having plasticity indexes ranging from 10 to 370 and unconfined compressive strengths of 18 kPa to 1000 kPa, that were taken from 26 different sites in the United Kingdom, Korea and Japan. These soils consisted of Holocene and Pleistocene clays plus diatomaceous mudstone and highly organic soils.     

Quantitative in situ monitoring of organohalogen compounds in domestic sewage resulting from the use of hypochlorite bleach

A field monitoring program was carried out on the sewage of five large apartment blocks in the city of Parma, Italy, to verify under realistic conditions existing laboratory data and model calculations on organohalogen formation by domestic hypochlorite (NaOCl) bleach usage. The average adsorbable organic halogens (AOX) level was determined for three distinct experimental phases: an “undisturbed period,” a “no bleach period,” and a “controlled bleach usage period.” The study involved participation of the site inhabitants in the second and third phases.In line with what could be predicted from the hypochlorite chemistry, an effect of the use of hypochlorite bleach on the AOX concentration in domestic sewage was detected. In a laboratory simulation conducted in parallel with the field study, the degree of NaOCl-to-AOX conversion ranged from 0.75 to 2.25% (w/w). The degree of conversion in the field study itself was of the order of 1.5% (or 0.075% when expressed for a typical bleach product containing 5% NaOCl). Under the specific conditions of the site, the difference in average AOX concentration in sewage between the “no bleach” and the “undisturbed” bleach use period was of the order of 37 μg·1⁻¹ (P < 0.05). The average bleach-related AOX emission at the study site was around 7 mg·(inhabitant·day)⁻¹. Overall, these figures correspond well with existing literature data. Linking the measured amounts of AOX with available ecotoxicity data for treated domestic effluents and their organohalogen constituents, it can be considered unlikely that the organohalogens formed by domestic bleaching will exert or trigger any adverse environmental effect.     

Experimental investigation of the influence on static and cyclic deformation of structural soft clay of stress level

This paper presents the experimental results performed to study the static and cyclic deformation behavior of undisturbed and remolded soft clays sampling from Xiaoshan. The consolidation tests indicated that the vertical strains of undisturbed soft clay could be divided into three stages with load increasing, however, the remolded clays were almost independent of stress level. The two cut-off points of these three stages are the preconsolidation stress and the structural yielding stress of the original clay, which could be determined by shear wave velocity measurement. The strains developed during cyclic tests of undisturbed and remolded soft clay, both having one turning point under different amplitude of cyclic stress. The strain developed slowly and stayed at a low level at the early stage, but developed quickly in a different way when the turning points were achieved and finally became great. The turning strains changed with different cyclic stress amplitudes, but they almost fell on a linear line whether undisturbed or remolded. Furthermore, the turning points of the remolded clay all fell on the same line of different confining stresses, including which of the undisturbed soft clay under confining pressure was larger than structural yielding stress. It was also found that the deformation characteristic of undisturbed and remolded Xiaoshan clay tend to be consistent when the structure of undisturbed soft clay is damaged. __________ Translated from Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2006, 25(5): 937–944 [译自: 岩石力学与工程学报]     

A Study on the Engineering Properties of Sand Improved by the Sand Compaction Pile Method

In order to directly evaluate the effects of soil improvement by the Sand Compaction Pile (SCP) method on the density, deformation, and static and liquefaction strength characteristics of sandy soils, a series of field and laboratory tests were performed. Laboratory tests were performed on high-quality undisturbed samples obtained from sandy soils both before and after soil improvement by the SCP method. The high-quality undisturbed samples were recovered by the in-situ freezing sampling method. The drained shear strength (internal friction angle, φ_d), liquefaction strength (R₁₅: cyclic stress ratio needed to cause 5% double amplitude axial strain in 15 cycles), and cyclic deformation characteristics (G~γ and h~γ relations) were determined by performing a series of laboratory tests on the undisturbed samples. Both the in-situ density and the relative density were measured on the undisturbed samples used in the laboratory tests. A standard penetration test (SPT) and a suspension-type P-S wave logging test were performed to investigate the soil profile of the test site before and after the sand compaction. Both the static and the liquefaction strengths of the sandy soils obtained in the laboratory tests were also compared with those estimated by empirical correlations used in practice based on the SPT N-value and soil gradations.     

Estimation of In-Situ Undrained Strength of Soft Soil Deposits by use of Unconfined Compression Test with Suction Measurement

Unconfined compression tests have been widely used in Japan for the purpose of determining undrained strengths of clay samples, but the unconfined compressive strengths are usually scattered even if specimens tested seem to have been subjected to the same stress history. This is due to the characteristic of the test itself, which is performed under unstable confining stress given by capillary pressure of the sample itself. In order to make clear the cause of scattering of measured strengths, three series of tests simulating the process from sampling to unconfined and triaxial compression tests on saturated soil samples are performed with three remolded and three undisturbed clays together with an undisturbed peat, and the influence of stress release and mechanical disturbance of the test specimen on the undrained strength is examined. Based on the test results, a practical method for estimating the in-situ undrained strength of soft soils from the results of a routine unconfined compression (UC) test together with suction measurement is proposed. From comparisons of the undrained strength profiles estimated by the proposed method with the strength profiles obtained by in-situ sounding test, it is found that the strength obtained by UC test can be reasonably corrected to estimate the in-situ undrained strength of soft soil deposits.     

An improved specimen preparation method for marine shallow gas-bearing sand sediments and its validations

Instabilities of shallow gas-charged seabed are potential geological hazards in ocean engineering.In practice,the conventional field sampling techniques failed to obtain undisturbed gas-bearing sediments from the seabed for laboratory mechanical testing because of sensitive gas exsolution and escape from sediments.However,preparation of representative remoulded gas-charged specimens is a challenging issue,because it is rather difficult to quantitatively control the gas content and obtain uniform distribution of gas bubbles within the specimen.Given the above problems,this work proposes a reliable approach to reconstitute the high-saturation specimen of gas-charged sediments in the laboratory by an improved multifunction integrated triaxial apparatus(MITA).This apparatus is developed based on an advanced stress path triaxial system by introducing a temperature-controlled system and a wavemonitoring system.The temperature-controlled system is used to accurately mimic the in situ environments of sediments in the seabed.The wave-monitoring system is utilized to identify exsolution point of free gas and examine the disturbance of gas to specimens during gas exsolution.The detailed procedure of gassy specimen preparation is introduced.Then,the quality of prepared specimens using our improved apparatus is validated by the high-resolution micro-X-ray computed tomography(μCT)scanning test,from which bubble occurrence and size distribution within the gassy sand specimen can be obtained;and preliminary mechanical tests on gassy sand specimens with various initial saturation degrees are performed.The proposed specimen preparation procedure succeeds in proving the postulated occurrence state of gas bubbles in coarse-grained sediments and accurately controlling the gas content.     

K0固结结构性软黏土的旋转硬化规律研究

从Wheeler等S-CLAY1本构模型出发,在软黏土结构性和塑性各向异性性状前期研究成果的基础上,综合考虑软黏土的塑性各向异性、结构性及其演化规律,将传统本构模型发展为更适用于K0固结结构性软黏土的本构模型。在考虑土体结构性及其演化的基础上,进一步研究土体塑性各向异性及其演化规律,引入旋转极限曲线的概念,通过增加一个表征软黏土各向异性演化速率的参数b,分析旋转硬化对K0固结结构性软黏土受力变形性状的影响,各向异性的初始值则可由常规试验参数获得。选取典型的浙江温州软黏土和Bothkennar软黏土,对比K0固结三轴压缩和三轴拉伸的计算和试验结果,揭示结构性软黏土屈服面旋转硬化的规律,同时对旋转演化速率参数的取值方法和取值范围进行研究。     

Performance of Band Shaped Vertical Drain for Soft Hai Phong Clay

Performance of band shaped prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) installed into soft Hai Phong clay with a 110 cm triangle arrangement is reported together with the engineering properties of the clay investigated by field and laboratory tests. Stationary piston sampling was carried out to obtain high quality undisturbed soil samples for laboratory tests and reliable engineering characteristics of the clay. It was assumed for the design of PVD spacing and preloading that the ratio of apparent value of horizontal coefficient of consolidation c_h(ap) to vertical coefficient of consolidation c_v is equal to 1.0. The settlement monitored in the field, which clearly showed that the actual settlement was faster than expected, resulted in the c_h(ap) value 1.5 times as much as c_v determined by the laboratory test.     

Field Evaluation of the Cyclic Strength versus Cone Tip Resistance Correlation in Silty Sands

The liquefaction potential assessment under the framework of simplified procedure that involves the use of cone penetration tests (CPT) typically relies on empirical correlations between the soil cyclic resistance ratio, CRR and cone tip resistance q_t. For sands that contain fines (particles passing #200 sieve), an adjustment based on fines content in the CRR-q_t correlation is called for in currently available procedures. Earlier laboratory calibration tests in reconstituted silty sand specimens performed by the authors have indicated that partial drainage in CPT played an important role in the CRR-q_t correlations. A series of laboratory tests on undisturbed samples and field piezocone penetration tests (CPTU) were carried out in an alluvial soil deposit at two test sites in Central and Southern Taiwan. The results indicated that unlike the uniformly mixed specimens reconstituted in laboratory, the tested natural alluvial silt/sand soils can be heterogeneous with closely spaced clean sand layers embedded in a matrix of silty material. This stratification can render the CPTU a drained test even at fines contents well in excess of 50%. The ignorance of free draining effects on CPTU due to stratification in alluvial soils may lead to overestimation of CRR. Because of these factors, calibration of the CRR-q_t correlations by performing tests in local soil and field procedures to ascertain the drainage conditions in CPTU are important to the proper application of the CRR-q_t correlations in the liquefaction potential assessment.     

R′w oder DnT,w? Überlegungen zur Kennzeichnung des Schallschutzes und Konsequenzen für eine Neufassung von DIN 4109

R′_w or D_nT,w? Considerations regarding sound protection notation and consequences for the revision of DIN 4109. Since its publication in 1989, DIN 4109 “Sound insulation in buildings” has be come a tried and tested tool for designing sound protection measures in domestic buildings and offices. Since 1992 European standards have been harmonised. For sound protection this meant the abolition of component tests in the laboratory based on “practical flanking transmission”. The German sound protection concept, which was based on the assumption of transferability between R′_w values measured in the laboratory to the expected sound insulation R′_w of the tested construction element on site, has thus become obsolete. Following the replacement of DIN 52210 by DIN EN ISO 140, laboratory measurements no longer involve the sound protection value R′_w, but only the sound insulation value R_w. This article discusses issues relating to this development.     

Some relations among fall cone penetration,liquidity index and undrained shear strength of clays considering the sensitivity ratio

This note describes some relations among fall cone penetration, d, liquidity index, LI, and undrained shear strength s_u, of clays. Fall cone tests are used to assess the liquidity index considering also the sensitivity ratio of undisturbed and remoulded soils, based on the cone penetration. Considering the British and the Swedish cones, it is possible to observe some differences between d values. Because the cone penetration amount is dependent on the undrained shear strength and that undrained strength of clays can be related to LI, a relation correlating LI based on the fall cone method and the cone penetration amount d for remoulded soils was obtained. It was observed that in remoulded soils, the LI−d relationship for each cone is unique irrespective of the soil type, testing equipment and operators. The correlation between liquidity index and undrained shear strength is provided considering new data and literature values taking into consideration the sensitivity ratio as well. From the LI−s_u−S_t relationship, it is possible to obtain a general overview about the strength characteristics of soils. Sensitivity ratio can also be extrapolated by liquidity index values considering a coefficient ‘a’ which might be related to the sedimentary environment (e.g. salt content), mineralogical composition and structure of clays, which however must be confirmed by further research. Finally, the predicted sensitivity ratio S_t^* is evaluated against the measured one within a range of (0.5-2)S_t.

     

Characterization of Yangsan Clay,Pusan, Korea

It has been reported by previous researchers that the preconsolidation pressure (p_c) of Kimhae (Yangsan) clay, which is thickly deposited along the Naktdong River, Pusan, Korea, is considerably less than its in-situ effective overburden pressure (p'_vo)-The question has arisen whether such a low p_c value is due to underconsolidation or to the unreliability of laboratory tests, including the use of low quality sample. As a cooperative research program between PHRI (Port and Harbour Research Institute) and Pusan National University, extensive in-situ and laboratory investigations were carried out at Yangsan, using a Japanese sampler and Japanese sampling technique. It is found that the p_c values at the site are slightly greater than p'_vo, which is different from the test results from the previous researchers. However, the overconsolidation ratio (OCR) at this site is quite small compared to similar aged normally consolidated clays deposited in Japan.     

STRENGTH AND CONSOLIDATION PROPERTIES OF BUSAN NEW PORT CLAYS

The sedimentary environment and the effects of sample disturbance on strength and consolidation properties of Busan New Port clays are examined through microfossils and radiocarbon age analyses and unconfined compression, K₀-consolidated undrained triaxial compression and extension tests and consolidation tests. In this study, only one or two samples, 74 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height, obtained from different depths, are used for the whole series of tests to provide small-sized specimens. The sedimentation rates of Busan New Port clays were (3.7-7.8) mm/year and higher than those for the coastal areas of the USA, Thailand and Japan. The in-situ undrained shear strength and consolidation parameters were estimated using Shogaki's method and compared with those of other test results and evaluated. Busan New Port clays are lightly overconsolidated clays. It can be seen that the consolidation settlements, which were greater than those estimated, were observed in Holocene Busan clay, are caused by the underestimation of the compression index and coefficient of consolidation values caused by sample disturbance.     

不同应力路径下结构性土的力学特性

天然土在受荷过程中会经历不同的应力路径，开展结构性土在不同的应力路径下的力学特性的试验研究可以为建立复杂应力路径下的合理结构性本构模型提供试验依据。对结构性土样在不同应力路径下的力学特性进行试验研究。所用土样是人工室内制备的结构性土试样，共进行不同的固结应力状态下常围压、减小围压和增大围压时施加竖向应力直至土样破坏的固结排水和固结不排水三轴试验，对结构性土样在不同的应力路径下的强度特性、破坏特性和变形特性进行探讨和分析。