The effect of kinematic conditions on the wear of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) in orthopaedic bearing applications

It is known that wear mechanisms differ between the ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) components of total hip replacement (THR) and total knee replacement (TKR). The difference in relative contact position or 'kinematic conditions of contact' between the metal and polymer components is thought to contribute to the contrast in observed wear mechanisms. A reciprocating wear tester was used to evaluate three basic kinematic contact conditions: sliding, in which the relative contact position on the polymer remains stationary; gliding, where the contact position on the polymer reciprocates; and rolling, where the contact position on the polymer varies and the relative velocities of both components are equal. All static load tests used cast Co-Cr alloy and irradiated Chirulen UHMWPE in a 37 degrees C environment lubricated with bovine serum albumin. UHMWPE test sample wear was measured gravimetrically at intervals of 600,000 cycles. The results indicated a difference in wear factor (volume lost due to wear per unit load per unit sliding distance) between the three groups with varying relative motion. The study indicates that screening tests which evaluate wear properties of new materials for total joint replacement should reflect the different kinematic contact conditions.     

Comparison of ISO standard and TKR patient axial force profiles during the stance phase of gait

Preclinical endurance testing of total knee replacements (TKRs) is performed using International Organization for Standardization (ISO) load and motion protocols. The standards are based on data from normal subjects and may not sufficiently mimic in vivo implant conditions. In this study, a mathematical model was used to calculate the axial force profile of 30 TKR patients with two current implant types, 22 with NexGen and eight with Miller-Galante II Cruciate-Retaining TKRs, and statistically compare the axial force specified by the ISO standard to the TKR patients. Significant differences were found between the axial forces of both groups of TKR patients and the ISO standard at local maxima and minima points in the first half of stance. The force impulse (area under the axial force curve, representing cumulative loading) was smaller for the ISO standard than the TKR patients, but only for those with NexGen implants. Waveform analysis using the coefficient of multiple correlation showed that the ISO and TKR patient axial force profiles were similar. The combined effect of ISO standard compressive load and motion differences from TKR patients could explain some of the differences between the wear scars on retrieved tibial components and those tested in total joint simulators.     

Elasto-plastic contact analysis of an ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene tibial component based on geometrical measurement from a retrieved knee prosthesis

The wear phenomenon of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) in knee and hip prostheses is one of the major restriction factors on the longevity of these implants. Especially in retrieved knee prostheses with anatomical design, the predominant types of wear on UHMWPE tibial components are delamination and pitting. These fatigue wear patterns of UHMWPE are believed to result from repeated plastic deformation owing to high contact stresses. In this study, the elasto-plastic contact analysis of the UHWMPE tibial insert, based on geometrical measurement for retrieved knee prosthesis, was performed using the finite element method (FEM) to investigate the plastic deformation behaviour in the UHMWPE tibial component. The results suggest that the maximum plastic strain below the surface is closely related to subsurface crack initiation and delamination of the retrieved UHMWPE tibial component. The worn surface whose macroscopic geometrical congruity had been improved due to wear after joint replacement showed lower contact stress at macroscopic level.     

丁腈橡胶三体湿磨粒磨损中砂粒运动的有限元分析

为研究砂粒在丁腈橡胶三体湿磨粒磨损中的作用机制,利用Abaqus有限元分析软件模拟丁腈橡胶在原油介质三体湿磨粒磨损中尖形和圆形砂粒在不同载荷作用下的运动方式,并探讨橡胶表面的受力变形。利用往复式磨损试验机在与有限元模拟计算相同的条件下进行丁腈橡胶在的三体湿磨粒磨损试验,并结合磨痕表面形貌分析,验证建立的有限元模型的正确性。结果表明,在所研究的载荷范围内,圆形砂粒的运动主要是以滚动为主,对表面的切削较弱,材料表面变形较小;而尖形砂粒在载荷较大时由滚动变为滑动,砂粒前端嵌入橡胶表面产生犁削作用,材料变形程度较大。磨损试验与有限元模拟结果符合较好。     

Study of the Influence of Contact Geometry and Contact Pressure on Sliding Distance to Galling in the Slider-on-Flat-Surface Wear Tester

One of the major causes of tool failure in sheet metal forming is wear in the form of galling. Galling is gradual buildup of adhered sheet material on the tool and leads to unacceptable scratches on the sheet surface and to components that fail to meet tolerances. Because it is difficult to reproduce operational and interactional conditions in laboratory test equipments it is hard to test, model, and predict galling initiation.

Here the authors examine how changes from elliptical to line contact geometry influenced galling initiation under dry sliding by using a slider-on-flat surface (SOFS) wear tester. A micro clean tool steel was tested against ferritic low-strength and martensitic high-strength steel sheets.

The sliding distance to galling initiation was extracted from friction data and verified by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations. The presence of adhesive wear on worn tools after completed tests was used as a criterion. Experimental results showed that the elliptical contact causes galling quicker than the line contact.

Applicability of experimental results depends on the relevance of test conditions, so contact pressures calculated for the described tests were compared to calculated contact pressures in a semi-industrial U-bending test and to literature data relevant to industrial applications. Good agreement between values observed for SOFS and for most selected industrial applications was found, which assume that contact pressures typical for most common industrial applications can be successfully simulated by selection of tool geometry and normal load in the SOFS tester.     

Thermal wear and electrical sliding wear behaviors of the polyimide modified polymer-matrix pantograph contact strip

In the present study, the polyimide resin (PI)/cashew-modified resin (YM) polymer-matrix pantograph contact strip (PMPCS) was prepared by using hot repressing, hydro-solidification and dipping treatment processes. The thermal properties of cured resins were studied by thermogravimetry analyzer and differential scanning calorimetry. The thermal wear and electrical sliding wear behaviors of PMPCS against copper were evaluated by a ring block wear tester at elevated temperature under dry sliding conditions and a wear tester which simulated the train motion under laboratory conditions, respectively. Worn surfaces and wear debris of PMPCS were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectrometer, and the wear mechanism was discussed. It has been found that the thermal stability of the PI/YM is superior to that of the YM under the same testing conditions. The results also showed that PI/YM-PMPCS had superior wear resistance than that of YM-PMPCS at elevated temperature and with electrical current. At elevated temperature, the wear mechanism of tribological pair evolved from adhesive wear to oxidative wear with mild delamination wear. Arc erosion wear, oxidative wear, and adhesive wear were the dominant mechanisms of tribological pair during the electrical wearing process.     

关节轴承寿命试验机在线磨损量检测综合误差建模

为了提升关节轴承寿命试验机在线磨损量检测的精度,以自制的关节轴承寿命试验机为研究对象,对寿命试验机磨损量检测系统进行了分析和建模。介绍了关节轴承磨损量在线检测原理,分析了影响磨损量检测精度的误差因素。然后以多体系统运动学理论为基础,建立了关节轴承寿命试验机磨损量检测系统综合误差模型。通过实验检测得到磨损量检测系统由于载荷变化而产生的磨损量检测误差(简称载荷误差),并依据上述实验参数,采用有限元仿真的方法对载荷误差实验工况下的综合误差模型进行了验证。实验与计算结果表明,实验值与计算值最大相差0.028mm,除基准值外两者最小误差为0.012mm。计算值与实验值较为接近,验证了此工况条件下多体综合误差模型的正确性。     

Effect of stair descent loading on ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene wear in a force-controlled knee simulator

A loading protocol approximating forces, torques and motions at the knee during stair descent was developed from previously published data for input into a force-controlled knee simulator. A set of total knee replacements (TKRs) was subjected to standard walking cycles and stair descent cycles at a ratio of 70: 1 for 5 million cycles. Another set of implants with similar articular geometry and the same ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) resin (GUR 415), sterilization and packaging was tested with standard walking cycles only. Implant kinematics, gravimetric wear and surface roughness of the UHMWPE inserts were analysed for both sets of implants. Contact stresses were calculated for both loading protocols using a Hertzian line contact model. Significantly greater weight loss (p < 0.05) and more severe surface damage of UHMWPE inserts resulted with the walking + stair descent loading protocol compared to walking cycles only. Anterior-posterior (AP) tibiofemoral contact point displacements were lower during stair descent than walking, but not significantly different (p = 0.05). Contact stresses were significantly higher during stair descent than walking, owing to higher axial loads and the smaller radius of curvature of the femoral components at higher flexion angles. High contact stresses on UHMWPE components are likely to accelerate the fatigue of the material, resulting in more severe wear, similar to what is observed in retrieved implants. Thus the inclusion of loading protocols for activities of daily living in addition to walking is warranted for more realistic in vitro testing of TKRs.     

销盘滑动磨损试验的仿真建模研究

以销盘滑动磨损为研究对象,建立了表面微凸体接触特性的物理模型和数学模型,由微凸体接触产生的磨屑推导出销盘滑动磨损仿真模型.采用有限元分析软件ANSYS对半球形微凸体接触应力和变形进行了仿真计算,并用销盘滑动磨损试验数据给予验证,证明了所建立的仿真模型是可行的.研究表明,利用ANSYS求解摩擦学接触问题是准确可靠的,建立正确的磨损仿真模型并辅以参数化设计方法是解决摩擦学仿真问题非常有效的方法.     

A comparative evaluation of the wear of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene abraded by Ti-6Al-4V

The study was initiated to assess the suitability of Ti-6Al-4V as a metal which articulates against Ultra High Molecular Weight (UHMW) polyethylene in total joint applications. The wear surfaces of Ti alloy were prepared to different levels of surface roughness and the effect of various surface chemical treatments were examined. A specially designed annular contact laboratory wear tester was developed to provide the surface loading and articulation. Comparative tests were also performed using 316 LVM stainless steel and Co-Cr-Mo alloy metallic wear components. All annular contact wear tests were performed in mammalian Ringer's solution environments and were evaluated using standard statistical techniques. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis of the wear surfaces indicates the formation of a polyethylene transfer film on all metal surfaces. The surface of the UHMW polyethylene samples after testing was considerably rougher than the original articulating metallic surface; the transfer film on the metal surfaces was responsible for this. It was concluded that Ti-6Al-4V is satisfactory for total joint replacement when used in combination with UHMW polyethylene. Proper surface preparation may allow lower rates of wear than conventional orthopaedic alloys.     

A FEM study on the mechanical responses of pseudoelastic TiNi alloys to a particle normal loads

In this study, the models of four materials including three sorts of pseudoelastic TiNi alloys and a stainless steel (as a contradistinction) enduring a particle's normal loads were individually simulated based on bilinear strain hardening law by means of finite element method. Owing to the pseudoelasticity, TiNi alloys proved to have high elastic strain limit and low pseudo-Yong's modulus, with which the special mechanical response was created under normal loads. The results shown that pseudoelastic TiNi alloys occurred plastic deformation more difficult than the stainless steel, and the critical load of plastic deformation increased with the increasing elastic strain limit and the decreasing pseudo-Young's modulus. Plastic regions of three TiNi alloys with the elastic strain limit 0.02, 0.04 and 0.06 were 0.60, 0.32, 0.047 times of that of the stainless steel, respectively. When the pseudoelastic TiNi alloys endured a particle's normal loads, the phenomena of decreasing contact stress, von Mises stress and increasing the elastic strain were also observed in this FEM study. In terms of above results, the wear mechanism of pseudoelastic TiNi alloys was discussed finally.     

生物肢体皮肤冲击磨损舒适度试验机研制

假肢与肢体间的接触损伤是冲击和磨损共同作用导致的，而目前的皮肤磨损测试机不能模拟肢体与皮肤的真实摩擦情况。为此，研制一种生物肢体皮肤冲击磨损舒适度试验机。该试验机由肢体固定装置、挤压磨损装置、冲击嵌套磨损装置和支撑平台组成，能用于模拟假肢与肢体之间在挤压磨损以及冲击-嵌套磨损时摩擦磨损的运动状态，从而对皮肤与假肢接触产生的复杂应力条件下的磨损情况进行研究，为假肢的设计以及磨损情况分析提供依据。     

An experimental study of wear of ferrous metals

An experimental study of tracks generated by point contact sliding surfaces under different loads has been carried out on a Bowden-Laben machine. The damage to mild steel, cast iron and carburized steel under repeated rubbing was studied by microhardness testing and microscope examination.The microhardness value at various depths below the track can be an indication of severe wear by sliding action. A critical value for a combination of materials was determined. The mechanism of wear and its gradual change at the contact surface with increased load and cycles of reciprocating sliding motion are discussed.     

Experimental extrapolation model for friction and wear of polymers on different testing scales

The friction and wear behaviour for polyoxymethylene homopolymers (POM-H) and polyethylene terephthalate with teflon additives (PET/PTFE) is compared on small-scale cylinder-on-plate tests (50-200 N normal loads) and large-scale flat-on-flat tests (190-3880 kN normal loads). A common parameter to characterise tribological data is the contact pressure×sliding velocity (pv-value), but its use seems restricted to a single testing scale. Four experimental models are presented to extrapolate tribological data from one to another testing scale, based on (i) one single mechanical parameter (normal load or contact pressure), (ii) two mechanical parameters (normal load and sliding velocity), (iii) the contact pressure-sliding velocity model (pv-temperature limit), (iv) macroscopic geometry model. The latter model is most extensive, considering the influences of thermal effects (frictional heat generation and dissipation), sample geometry (geometry factor G) and visco-elastic contact (critical contact pressure p₀). For unfilled polymers, the introduction of macroscopic scaling factors allows for the extrapolation of coefficients of friction obtained on different testing scales. Specific or volumetric wear rates cannot be extrapolated because they strongly depend on the sample geometry, while linear wear rates are in better agreement when considering the transitions between mild wear, softening and melting. For internally lubricated polymers, extrapolation is more difficult. The differences depending on the testing scale are attributed to contact stress concentrations near the sample borders and limited wear debris mobility within large contact areas, promoting a homogeneous film formation onto the polymer surface.     

Calf serum constituent fractions influence polyethylene wear and microbial growth in knee simulator testing

Calf serum lubricants consisting of various polypeptide constituent fractions are routinely used in knee wear simulators as part of the standardized test protocol. Three calf sera (bovine, new-born and alpha) were diluted as per the recommendation of ISO 14243-3 and used in displacement-controlled knee wear simulators to investigate their effects on polyethylene wear. Biochemical analyses included measuring total polypeptide degradation, electrophoretic profiles and low-molecular weight polypeptide concentrations to elucidate their involvement in the wear process. The effects of the various calf sera constituent fractions on microbial growth were also explored. The polyethylene wear rates and the results from the biochemical analyses for the three calf serum lubricants were all found to be statistically significantly different from each other. The lubricant derived from the alpha-calf serum was closest in constituent fractions to human synovial fluid. It also showed the lowest polyethylene wear rate (14.38 +/- 0.85 mm3/million cycles) and the lowest amount of polypeptide degradation (7.77 +/- 3.87%). Furthermore, the alpha-calf serum lubricant was associated with the least amount of change in the electrophoretic profile, the least change in low-molecular weight polypeptide concentration, and the lowest microbial growth in the presence of sodium azide (a microbial inhibitor conventionally used in implant wear testing). Replacing sodium azide with a broad spectrum antibiotic-antimycotic eradicated the microbial growth. Some speculation was entertained regarding the effect of alpha-calf serum on colloid-mediated boundary lubrication. Based on the results, it was recommended that ISO 14243-3 be modified to include guidelines on calf serum constituent fractions that would favour using alpha-calf serum in order to improve the fidelity of the simulation in knee implant wear testing.     

Wheel-rail wear simulation

This paper declares the method for the computation of the wheel-rail surface degradation in a curve where the major surface degradation phenomenon is a combination of wear and plastic deformation. Simulating the form change of the wheel-rail contacts help to identify the risk of severe or catastrophic wear resulting from increased train speeds and axle loads and can help in determining more efficient maintenance schedules for track and rolling stock. The method was previously used to simulate the form change in a two-roller contact. The progress is made in the terms of general geometry modelling, which makes differences in the various contact configurations. The normal contact problem is analysed using the modified Winkler method and calibrated using the results from FEM modelling of the wheel-rail contact with elastic-plastic material model. A piecewise approach and stick-slip analysis of the rolling-sliding contact solves the tangential problem. A linear wear law is used in the wear computation. The form change for a typical two-point contact in a low radius curve was analysed and discussed.     

端面摩擦磨损自动检测系统的设计

端面摩擦磨损试验可以模拟和检测面接触摩擦副的摩擦学特性。设计了端面摩擦磨损试验自动检测系统。首先在建立摩擦力和摩擦因数测量的数学模型的基础上,设计了摩擦力参数的自动检测系统,然后设计了端面试验机的智能化测控系统。使用结果表明,使用该自动检测系统的端面摩擦磨损试验机可实时检测和处理载荷、速度、温度、摩擦力和摩擦因数等参数信息,并以表格或图像曲线形式显示,有利于对试验材料的摩擦学特性变化作出实时、客观、量化的评估。     

Dry Reciprocating Sliding Friction and Wear Response of WC–Ni Cemented Carbides

A number of WC–Ni based cemented carbide grades with distinctive binder contents were tested with the goal to evaluate their dry reciprocating sliding friction and wear behaviour against WC–6 wt.%Co cemented carbide using a Plint TE77 tribometer and distinctive normal contact loads. The generated wear tracks were analysed by scanning electron microscopy and quantified volumetrically using surface scanning topography. The experimental results revealed one WC–Ni grade with superior wear performance.     

Percussive impact wear: A study of repetitively impacting solid components in engineering

Repetitive impacting of solid components in many industries poses severe wear problems limiting service life. This paper first describes the principal variables, testing methods, testing equipment and material dependencies. Subsequently, a general engineering impact wear theory is outlined based on experimental results of the initiation and progress of wear, and the relationship between impact loads and wear scar geometry. Both the impact pulse and wear mechanism are modelled for general applications     

PCrNiMo材料摩擦磨损特性研究

采用自制的销盘式干滑动摩擦磨损试验机，研究了不同硬度炮钢材料PCrNiMo自配副时的摩擦磨损特性。研究结果表明：材料的磨损率随着速度、载荷的增加而增大，摩擦因数随着速度、载荷的增加而减小；低速低载条件下，接触表面以磨粒磨损为主，而在高速、高载条件下，接触表面以粘着磨损形式为主。