Degradation kinetics and aging mechanisms on sisal fiber cement composite systems

The kinetics of vegetable (sisal) fiber degradation and the mechanisms responsible for deterioration of continuous sisal fiber cement composites are presented in this paper. Two matrices were used: one with 50% partial cement replacement by metakaolin (PC–MK) and a reference matrix having as binder only Portland cement (PC). The durability performance of the composite systems is examined and the mechanisms for the significant delay in the fiber degradation when the total amount of calcium hydroxide is reduced from the matrix discussed. The composites were subjected to 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 cycles of wetting and drying and then tested under a four point bending load configuration in order to determine the flexural behavior and cracking mechanisms with progressive aging. Furthermore, composites stored under controlled lab conditions were tested under bending load at ages ranging from 28 days to 5 years. Fibers extracted from the aged composites were subjected to thermal analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and microscopical observations in order to evaluate the changes in chemical composition and microstructure. Two fiber degradation mechanisms were observed in the PC composites: fiber mineralization due to the precipitation of calcium hydroxide in the fiber cell and surface and degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin due to the adsorption of calcium and hydroxyl ions. The degradation process occurs rapidly and after 10 cycles of wetting/drying a quite expressive modification in the flexural behavior is observed. The residual mechanical parameters after 25 cycles were the same as those observed in the unreinforced matrix. For the PC–MK composite fiber mineralization was not observed due to the low content of CH in the matrix.     

The effect of accelerated aging on the interface of jute textile reinforced concrete

In this work the degradation mechanisms of concrete reinforced with natural jute textile are discussed. Double-sided pullout tests were performed on specimens reinforced with polymer-coated and uncoated jute fabrics. To obtain a composite with an enhanced durability performance a matrix with partial replacement of the Portland cement by metakaolin was used. Before testing, the specimens were subjected to accelerated aging conditions. After a curing period of 28 days in water the samples were exposed to a temperature of 40 °C and a relative humidity of 99% over 28, 56, 90, 180 and 365 days. Microstructural analyses were performed to evaluate the degradation of the jute yarn and the fiber-matrix interphase using an environmental scanning electron microscope. Thermogravimetric analysis was carried out in order to evaluate the calcium hydroxide content. The pullout results showed that coated fabrics formed a stronger bond than did the uncoated. For ordinary Portland cement matrix the maximum fiber pullout force decreased up to 85% after six months of accelerated aging. In the MK matrix the degradation process was retarded substantially. Polymer coatings improved the bond between fiber and matrix and reduced fiber degradation.     

The combined effects of load, moisture and temperature on the properties of E-glass/epoxy composites

The properties of an E-glass/epoxy composite were examined before and after mechanical loading and moisture conditioning. Preliminary results indicate that the modulus, strength, and strain of the E-glass/epoxy composite material are affected by the presence of moisture and mechanical loading when compared to control specimens. At shorter durations of conditioning at room temperature, a slight increase in strength and a slight decrease in modulus were observed; and at longer durations, 3000 h, a noticeable reduction in strength and strain-to-failure was observed. Specimens conditioned under stress, in water at 65 °C for 1000 h exhibited higher loss in modulus. It is speculated that constant stress may have a positive effect in short-term, and that extended exposure to moisture at room temperature leads to brittle failure while exposure at high temperatures may lead to ductile failure of E-glass/epoxy composites.     

玻璃纤维/溴化环氧乙烯基酯加速老化与自然老化的相关性

选取我国典型气候条件下的万宁和拉萨这两个试验站,进行玻璃纤维/溴化环氧乙烯基酯3年的自然环境老化试验;同时在实验室环境下进行了玻璃纤维/溴化环氧乙烯基酯的湿热老化、热空气老化、光老化和高温浸水人工加速老化试验。测试老化后玻璃纤维/溴化环氧乙烯基酯的拉伸强度、弯曲强度和压缩强度等力学性能,研究了玻璃纤维/溴化环氧乙烯基酯在自然和实验室环境下的老化规律。用灰色理论中的灰色关联分析法计算了自然环境老化试验与人工加速老化试验的相关性。结果表明：以压缩强度为性能指标时,试验室加速光老化试验与自然环境老化试验的相关性最大,关联度达到了0.75左右。计算得到了加速光老化对拉萨和万宁自然老化的加速因子（AF）和加速转换因子（ASF）,两地的ASF最终分别稳定在5.28和7.25。     

竹纤维/聚乳酸复合材料自然老化性能研究

采用氢氧化钠(NaOH)+异氰酸酯(MDI)处理的界面调控方法对竹纤维/聚乳酸复合材料界面进行调控,通过注射成型工艺制备竹纤维/聚乳酸复合材料。利用傅里叶红外光谱、X射线衍射、凝胶渗透色谱及扫描电镜等分析手段研究了竹纤维/聚乳酸复合材料的自然老化性能。研究发现,自然老化过程中,在水、光、热和氧的协同作用下,复合材料中的聚乳酸分子不断产生水解,分子链断裂,分子量减小,聚乳酸由一定的结晶态逐渐转变为无定形态,结晶度减小,聚乳酸自身强度不断下降,聚乳酸与竹纤维的粘结力不断降低,二者接合界面被破坏,复合材料质量不断减少、力学性能不断下降。老化137d后,复合材料表面出现明显的裂纹,拉伸强度和冲击强度分别降低了69.6%和75.8%。竹纤维/聚乳酸复合材料自然老化较严重,需要采用一定的技术手段进一步改善复合材料户外使用性能。     

竹纤维增强聚乳酸复合材料热老化性能

采用氢氧化钠和异氰酸酯处理的界面调控方法对竹纤维(BF)增强聚乳酸(PLA)复合材料界面进行调控,通过注射成型工艺制备BF/PLA复合材料。利用FTIR、XRD、凝胶渗透色谱及SEM等分析手段研究了BF/PLA复合材料热老化性能。研究发现: 热老化过程中PLA分子链中的C O不断水解,分子链的C—O断裂生成聚合度更低的小分子量的PLA,PLA结晶度减小,PLA与BF的接合界面被破坏,拉伸强度和冲击强度随老化时间的增加逐渐降低。BF/PLA复合材料在80℃热老化16天后拉伸强度和冲击强度分别降低了75%和77.6%,在100℃热老化32 h后拉伸强度和冲击强度分别降低了80.3%和83.4%。温度对BF/PLA复合材料老化影响显著,温度越高,老化速度越快。     

热氧老化对碳纤维织物增强聚合物基复合材料弯曲性能的影响

为了探索增强体结构对碳纤维增强聚合物基复合材料(CF-PMCs)热氧老化后弯曲性能的影响,对三维四向编织碳纤维/环氧复合材料(简称为三维编织复合材料)和层合平纹碳布/环氧复合材料(简称为层合复合材料)的热氧老化性能进行了研究。利用FTIR、老化失重、弯曲测试和SEM等手段分析了热氧老化前后的试样。结果表明:热氧老化导致基体树脂的氧化断链以及纤维/基体界面结合力的退化是两种复合材料弯曲强度和弯曲模量下降的原因,弯曲强度比弯曲模量更容易受热氧老化的影响。在相同的热氧老化条件下,层合复合材料的热氧老化失重大于三维编织复合材料的,而三维编织复合材料的弯曲强度和弯曲模量保留率均大于层合复合材料的。在140℃下老化1 200h后,层合复合材料的弯曲强度和弯曲模量保留率分别为74.7%和88.3%,而对应的三维编织复合材料的分别为79.4%和91.5%。因此,采用三维编织预制件作为CF-PMCs的增强体是一种有效的提高其热氧稳定性的方法。     

Evaluation of the strand in cement (SIC) test for GRCs with improved durability

Even today the durability of glass fibre reinforced concrete composites (GRC) remains a widely studied topic. The accelerated ageing technique and the strand-in-cement (SIC) test method were developed to study the durability of GRCs in the early days. Within this paper it is shown that the standard SIC specimen preparation is not always suitable to evaluate the durability of new GRCs. A modified SIC set-up is proposed and the influence of the number of tested specimens per series on the trustworthiness of the results is discussed. Moreover, the modified SIC set-up will be used within two sequences of accelerated ageing: the first sequence of series of specimens contains an ordinary Portland cement (OPC) mixture and the second series a modified matrix. The usefulness of “accelerated ageing” is discussed and commented for both series.     

Model-based inverse characterization of high-velocity tension impact failure in composites

This study presents the material characterization of high-velocity tension impact failure in composites using the split Hopkinson bar (SHB) test and the inverse analysis. A simulation code for the SHB test was developed using finite element analysis. In the code, the Hashin failure criterion is used to characterize the impact failure phenomena in composites. Material characterization is achieved to identify the material parameters for the Hashin criterion through inverse analysis from the measured strain histories during the SHB test. The advantage of this characterization is to obtain the true dynamic failure properties of composites without strict assumptions of elastic wave propagation on a specimen during the SHB test. Numerical examples are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the present characterization.     

Cracking mechanisms in durable sisal fiber reinforced cement composites

Fiber reinforced cement composite laminates with long sisal fibers were manufactured using a cast hand lay up technique. A matrix with partial cement replacement by metakaolin and calcined waste crushed clay brick was used in order to improve the durability aspects. Mechanical response was measured under tension and bending tests while crack formation was investigated using a high resolution image capturing procedure. Crack spacing was measured using image analysis and correlated with the applied strain under both the tensile and bending response. Various stages of loading corresponding to initiation, propagation, distribution, opening, and localization of a crack system in the specimen are discussed. The effect of flexural cracking on the location of neutral axis during the bending tests was measured using strain-gages.     

Macro and micromechanics analysis of short fiber composites stiffness: The case of old newspaper fibers–polypropylene composites

Stiffness is one of the most relevant characteristics of composite materials. Natural wood fibers have demonstrated their ability to increase the Young’s moduli of composite materials, and old newspapers are a potential source of reinforcing fibers for composite materials. There are some micromechanic models to predict the Young’s modulus of composite materials, and one of the input data is the intrinsic modulus of their fibers. This intrinsic modulus is a value which is difficult or impossible to measure in the case of wood fibers, due to their measures. This paper evaluates the stiffening abilities of old newspaper fibers and the possibility to back calculate the value of the intrinsic Young’s modulus by means of micromechanic models. Different percentages of old newspaper fibers were compounded with polypropylene (PP). Micromechanics of the fibers were obtained using Hirsch model, Cox–Krenchel’s model, Tsai–Pagano model and Halpin–Tsai equations. The most important results were the average intrinsic Young’s modulus of the fibers, the mean orientation angle and the mean modulus efficiency factor.     

Effect of fiber surface modification on water absorption and hydrothermal aging behaviors of GF/pCBT composites

Water absorption and aging behaviors of fiber reinforced polymerized poly (cyclic butylene terephthalate) (GF/pCBT) composites are investigated. We coated nano-silica on glass fiber surface by physical vapor deposition (PVD) method. Subsequently, we immersed pCBT composites reinforced with nano-treated/untreated fibers in 25 °C and 60 °C distilled water until their saturated moisture. We also exposed some specimens in various hydrothermal aging environments. We tested the mechanical performance of these test specimens and found that the mechanical performance of both pCBT cast and GF/pCBT composites reduces obviously after water absorption and hydrothermal aging. However, nano-silica modified fiber reinforced composites have higher remaining strength than GF/pCBT. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to study the microscopic phase and nanoparticle modified mechanism, and better interface characteristic between fibers and matrix is observed.     

Effect of fabric types on the impact behavior of cement based composites in flexure

Two different fabric types were used to investigate the effect of the fabric types on the static and impact behavior of fabric reinforced cement based composites by using three point bending tests for various drop heights of hammer and position of the specimens on the supports. For each fabric type, 18 specimens with dimensions of 50 mm × 150 mm × 12 mm were produced with the pultrusion process. The vertical specimens have more stiffness, less ultimate deflection and higher load carrying capacity than the horizontal specimens for same drop heights. However, the horizontal specimens subjected to impact loads have higher stresses than the vertical specimens due to the section properties. The tests showed that polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fabric reinforced cement based composites carried higher impact loads, were stiffer and had less deflection than other composites. At the drop heights over 100 mm, the impact strength of the horizontal specimens sharply decreased, while that of the vertical specimens was remained same.     

Bayes approach in RDT using accelerated and long-term life data

A common problem of reliability demonstration testing (RDT) is the magnitude of total time on test required to demonstrate reliability to the consumer’s satisfaction, particularly in the case of high reliability components. One solution is the use of accelerated life testing (ALT) techniques. Another is to incorporate prior beliefs, engineering experience, or previous data into the testing framework. This may have the effect of reducing the amount of testing required in the RDT in order to reach a decision regarding conformance to the reliability specification. It is in this spirit that the use of a Bayesian approach can, in many cases, significantly reduce the amount of testing required.We demonstrate the use of this approach to estimate the acceleration factor in the Arrhenius reliability model based on long-term data given by a manufacturer of electronic components (EC). Using the Bayes approach we consider failure rate and acceleration factor to vary randomly according to some prior distributions. Bayes approach enables for a given type of technology the optimal choice of test plan for RDT under accelerated conditions when exacting reliability requirements must be met. These requirements are given by a hypothetical consumer by two different ways. The calculation of posterior consumer’s risk is demonstrated in both cases.The test plans are optimum in that they take into account Var{λ|data}, posterior risk, E{λ|data}, Median λ or other percentiles of λ at data observed at the accelerated conditions. The test setup assumes testing of units with time censoring.     

Quantitative characterization of flaws near a surface using inverse born approximation

Quantitative reconstruction of volumetric flaws near a surface of an elastic solid has been carried out experimentally by analyzing the scattered ultrasonic waves. The inverse Born approximation (developed for flaws in bulk materials) was tested for the first time in the determination of the size, shape, and orientation of near-surface flaws. We have studied spherical solid inclusions at various depths below the surface. In addition we examined an approximately 2:1 prolate spheroidal inclusion which was located one major axis below the surface. The determination of the flaw's size, shape, and orientation in terms of an equivalent ellipsoid is realized by performing nonlinear least-squares iteration of the one-dimensional Born inversion results obtained at various scattering directions within a finite aperture. The reconstruction is in good agreement with the actual parameters of the flaw.     

Identification of plasticity constants from orthogonal cutting and inverse analysis

The aim of this work is that from experimental determined cutting process parameters be able to predict the plasticity input constants to Finite Element Method (FEM) models. In the present study the Johnson–Cook constitutive model constants are determined on the basis of cutting process parameters in orthogonal cutting and by use of inverse analysis. Previously established links between Johnson–Cook constitutive model constants and cutting process parameters in the cutting process such as primary cutting force and chip compression ratio is used serve as a starting point in the inverse analysis. As a reference material AISI 4140 has been chosen in this study, which is a tempered steel. The Johnson–Cook constitutive model constants in the reference material are being changed within an interval of ±30%. The inverse analysis is performed using a Kalman filter. The material model for the reference material is validated on the basis of the experimental results in previous work. The model showed to predict the cutting process parameters with a high level of accuracy. The predicted Johnson–Cook constitutive model constants in the present study achieve an error between simulated- and experimental cutting process parameters of maximum 2%. The method described in this study is not limited to identify Johnson–Cook constitutive model constants, but the method can also be used for other constitutive models. The same applies to the process itself and the selected cutting process parameters, but orthogonal cutting has been used to illustrate and validate this method.     

Design of accelerated hygrothermal cycles on polymer matrix composites in the case of a supersonic aircraft

The paper is related to a supersonic transportation application where polymer matrix composites utilized in primary structures are subjected to particular hygrothermal flight-cycles. In fact, the particular point in this study is the drying effect of supersonic flight at high temperature, around 130 °C, on the durability of the material. This phenomenon constitutes an entirely new situation for these materials in contrast with a classical subsonic flight at low temperature. The supersonic aircraft is supposed to be subjected to a succession of supersonic flight-cycles followed by a periodic maintenance operation. The objective of the study is first to characterize the in-service material state during the supersonic flight cycles and after the maintenance operations. Then, the challenge is to define the material geometry and environmental conditions to meet the in-service material state in short time. Thus, different accelerated cycles adapted to the new situation of supersonic flights, i.e. focusing on the cyclical drying of the material, are proposed.     

Multiscale progressive failure analysis of textile composites

The experimental determination of stiffness and strength of textile composites is expensive and time-consuming. Experimental tests are only capable of delivering properties of a whole textile layer, because a decomposition is not possible. However, a textile layer, consisting of several fiber directions, has the drawback that it is likely to exhibit anisotropic material behavior. In the presented paper a finite element multiscale analysis is proposed that is able to predict material behavior of textile composites via virtual tests, solely from the (nonlinear) material behavior of epoxy resin and glass fibers, as well as the textile fiber architecture. With these virtual tests it is possible to make predictions for a single layer within a textile preform or for multiple textile layers at once. The nonlinear and pressure-dependent behavior of the materials covered in the multiscale analysis is modeled with novel material models developed for this purpose. In order to avoid mesh-dependent solutions in the finite-element simulations, regularization techniques are applied. The simulations are compared to experimental test results.     

麦秸秆粉/PP木塑复合材料紫外线加速老化性能

以麦秸秆粉为填充材料(质量分数50%),以聚丙烯(PP)膜为基体材料,采用混炼模压成型制备麦秸秆/PP木塑复合材料,对其进行紫外线加速老化实验,对比研究不同填充材料的木塑复合材料老化前后的力学性能和颜色变化,用FTIR分析探讨了复合材料老化机制,用SEM观察其表面微观形貌。结果表明,紫外线加速老化会导致麦秸秆/PP复合材料力学性能降低,当老化时间小于960 h时,麦秸秆/PP木塑复合材料弯曲强度、拉伸强度下降幅度较小,老化时间大于960 h时,力学性能下降幅度较大,材料褪色明显; 老化1200 h其弯曲强度、拉伸强度、冲击强度分别下降67.2%、47.89%、32.41%; 麦秸秆纤维中羟基加速了PP的紫外光降解,最终材料表面出现明显裂纹,部分纤维剥落并伴随有PP粉化现象。     

Guidelines for flexural resistance of FRP reinforced concrete slabs and beams in fire

Several building codes are currently available for the design of concrete structures reinforced with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars. Nevertheless, there is little information provided about structural behavior in case of fire and no reliable design methods are available for FRP reinforced concrete (RC) members in fire. The goal of this paper is to provide guidelines for the calculation of the resistant bending moment of FRP-RC members exposed to fire in compliance with the provisions of Eurocodes, based on studies recently carried out by the authors. The paper provides a conceptual approach to fire safety checks for bending moment resistance of FRP-RC members. With reference to thermo-mechanical analysis, a simplified design method (for both thermal and mechanical analyses) for sagging bending moment resistance of FRP-RC slabs in fire situations is finally suggested.