R404A和R410A应用于平行流冷凝器的模拟分析比较

采用分布参数法对平行流冷凝器建立数学模型，对目前广泛使用的制冷剂R134a和低温制冷剂R404A和R410A在平行流冷凝器中的换热和流动性能进行模拟计算和分析比较。分别在相同和不同工况下。比较3种制冷剂的换热系数及压降等换热和流动性能参数。结果表明，在采用平行流冷凝器的汽车空调工况范围内，R410AR404A的流动和传热性能均优于R134a，更适宜用于汽车空调用平行流冷凝器。     

Replacement of R22 in tube-and-shell condensers: experiments and simulations

An investigation of the change in condenser overall heat transfer coefficient when replacing R22 with one of the three mixtures R407C, R404A and R410B was made, both experimentally and theoretically. Measurements have been carried out on a full-scale test plant consisting of a horizontal shell-side condenser. According to the measurements the decrease in overall heat transfer coefficient for the non-azeotropic mixture R407C was very large, up to 70% compared to R22, while for the near-azeotropic mixture R404A the decrease was less than 15%. Simulations of the condenser were done with a comprehensive computer program, calculating the condensation heat transfer with an approximate method including a correction for mass resistance. The calculation model was not able to predict this large degradation for the non-azeotropic mixture, while the predictions agreed rather well with the measurements for the pure fluid and the near-azeotropic mixtures.     

R407C、R410A系统热力性能研究综述

本文介绍了R22制冷剂最有希望的替代物R407C和R410A的基本物性，以及国外学者对使用这两种工质的制冷系统有关换热、压降特性及对COP影响的研究成果，以帮助国内制冷、空调企业了解R22替代工质研究的新动向、加快制冷工质替代的步伐。     

Condensation heat transfer coefficients for R22 and R407C in gravity driven flow regime within a smooth horizontal tube

The quasi local heat transfer coefficients of R22 and R407C in the coaxial counterflow condenser (20 mm ID) of a refrigerating vapour compression plant have been experimentally measured. The experimental conditions under which the heat transfer coefficients were determined reflect a typical working situation for small scale refrigeration systems. The plant runs with low mass fluxes of refrigerant within the range of 45.5–120 kg/m²/s. During the experimental tests the pressure at the inlet of the test condenser varies within a fixed range between 15.2 and 14.3 bar. The results illustrate that the R22 heat transfer coefficient is always greater than that of R407C. Furthermore, comparisons between the experimental data and the values predicted by means of the most credited literature relationships for gravity-driven condensation are reported.     

不同混合比下丙烷和二氟乙烷替代R22理论研究

针对目前替代R22应用比较广泛的R407C和R410A存在的一些问题，提出一种由丙烷R290和二氟乙烷R152a组成的混合制冷剂来替代R22，分析该混合制冷剂的环境影响指数、安全特性和润滑油等问题，并针对不同配比情况下的温度滑移特性、热力学特性和循环特性进行了理论研究，与R407C和R410A进行了对比，得出R290质量分数在50％～90％之间时组成的混合制冷剂是一种对环境危害很小，温度滑移很小，具有合适的压比和COP，润滑特性很好的优良近共沸制冷剂，用于替代R22优于R407C和R410A。     

Flow condensation heat transfer coefficients of R22, R134a, R407C, and R410A inside plain and microfin tubes

Flow condensation heat transfer coefficients (HTCs) of R22, R134a, R407C, and R410A inside horizontal plain and microfin tubes of 9.52 mm outside diameter and 1 m length were measured at the condensation temperature of 40 °C with mass fluxes of 100, 200, and 300 kg m⁻² s⁻¹ and a heat flux of 7.7–7.9 kW m⁻². For a plain tube, HTCs of R134a and R410A were similar to those of R22 while HTCs of R407C are 11–15% lower than those of R22. For a microfin tube, HTCs of R134a were similar to those of R22 while HTCs of R407C and R410A were 23–53% and 10–21% lower than those of R22. For a plain tube, our correlation agreed well with the present data for all refrigerants exhibiting a mean deviation of 11.6%. Finally, HTCs of a microfin tube were 2–3 times higher than those of a plain tube and the heat transfer enhancement factor decreased as the mass flux increased for all refrigerants tested.     

Experimental investigation of the performance of R22, R407C and R410A in several capillary tubes for air-conditioners

The objective of this study is to present test results and to develop a dimensionless correlation on the basis of the experimental data of adiabatic capillary tubes for R22 and its alternatives, R407C (R32/125/134a, 23/25/52 wt.%) and R410A (R32/125, 50/50 wt.%). Several capillary tubes with different length and inner diameter were selected as test sections. Mass flow rate through the capillary tube was measured for several condensing temperatures and various degrees of subcooling at the inlet of each capillary tube. Experimental conditions for the condensing temperatures were selected as 40, 45 and 50°C, and the degrees of subcooling were adjusted to 1.5, 5 and 10°C. Mass flow rates of R407C and R410A were compared with those of R22 for the same test conditions. The results for straight capillary tubes were also compared with those of coiled capillary tubes. A new correlation based on Buckingham π theorem to predict the mass flow rate through the capillary tubes was presented based on extensive experimental data for R22, R407C and R410A. Dimensionless parameters were chosen considering the effects of tube geometry, capillary tube inlet conditions, and refrigerant properties. Dimensionless correlation predicted experimental data within relative deviations ranging from −12% to +12% for every test condition for R22, R407C and R410A. The predictions by the developed correlation were in good agreement with the results in the open literature.     

采用新制冷剂R134a和混合制冷剂R410A的板式蒸发器性能研究

采用分布参数法对波纹型通道板式蒸发器建立数学模型,并进行了数值模拟.通过计算板内局部蒸发传热系数和压降可以简化板式蒸发器内复杂三维网状流动的传热特性.针对应用较广的R134a和R410A制冷剂来比较和分析板式蒸发器在小的温差下的传热性能.在3种不同的计算工况下简要分析了各种热力参数的变化对蒸发器整体传热性能的影响.不同的制冷剂,其传热系数和压降差别较大,相同工况下采用R410A替代R22,板式蒸发器的传热性能可提高8.5%～10.0%,且压降可大幅降低.     

Condensation and evaporation heat transfer of R410A inside internally grooved horizontal tubes

Heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop were measured for condensation and evaporation of R410A and HCFC22 inside internally grooved tubes. The experiments were performed for a conventional spiral groove tube of 8.01 mm o.d. and 7.30 mm mean i.d., and a herring-born groove tube of 8.00 mm o.d. and 7.24 mm mean i.d. To measure the local heat transfer coefficients and pressure drop, the test section was subdivided into four small sections having 2 m working length. The ranges of refrigerant mass flow density was from 200 to 340 kg/(m² s) for both condensation and evaporation of R410A and HCFC22, and the vapour pressure was 2.41 MPa for condensation and 1.09 MPa for the evaporation of R410A. The obtained heat transfer data for R410A and HCFC22 indicate that the values of the local heat transfer coefficients of the herring-bone grooved tube are about twice as large as those of spiral one for condensation and are slightly larger than those of spiral one for the evaporation. The measured local pressure drop in both condensation and evaporation is well correlated with the empirical equation proposed by the authors.     

Condensation heat transfer coefficients of R22, R407C, and R410A on a horizontal plain, low fin, and turbo-C tubes

In this study, condensation heat transfer coefficients (HTCs) were measured on a horizontal plain tube, low fin tube, and Turbo-C tube at the saturated vapor temperature of 39 °C for R22, R407C, and R410A with the wall subcooling of 3–8 °C. R407C, a non-azeotropic refrigerant mixture, exhibited a quite different condensation phenomenon from those of R22 and R410A and its condensation HTCs were up to 50% lower than those of R22. For R407C, as the wall subcooling increased, condensation HTCs decreased on a plain tube while they increased on both low fin and turbo-C tubes. This was due to the lessening effect of the vapor diffusion film with a rapid increase in condensation rate on enhanced tubes. On the other hand, condensation HTCs of R410A, almost an azeotrope, were similar to those of R22. For all refrigerants tested, condensation HTCs of turbo-C tube were the highest among the tubes tested showing a 3–8 times increase as compared to those of a plain tube.     

水平微圆管内R22和R410a凝结压降的实验研究

R410a是一种被广泛看好的R22替代物,研究R410a的凝结压降特性对开发适用此种制冷工质的凝结换热设备有重要意义。搭建了微细尺度凝结压降实验台,实验研究了R22和R410a在内径为0.941mm水平不锈钢圆管内饱和温度为40℃、质量流速为200-1000 kg/m^2.s、干度为0.2-0.8时的凝结压降特性。实验结果表明：凝结压降随着质量流速的增大而增大,在较高干度时更加明显。与R22相比,R410a的凝结压降在较低干度和质量流速时与R22相当,在较高干度和较高质量流速时明显低于R22。     

Experimental investigation on the drop-in performance of R407C as a substitute for R22 in a screw chiller with shell-and-tube heat exchangers

A drop-in test of a mixed refrigerant R407C is performed in a commercial screw chiller with shell-and-tube heat exchangers originally designed for R22. The test results show a severe performance reduction when substituting the refrigerant from R22 to R407C. The reason for the performance reduction is analyzed comprehensively, and the influence of thermodynamic properties, compressor efficiency, and heat transfer is evaluated quantitatively. The major factor causing the performance reduction is assessed as the degradation of the heat transfer in using the mixed refrigerant, R407C. The heat transfer degradation in the evaporator is found to be larger and influences more on the chiller performance reduction. The performance reduction caused by the evaporator is approximately two times compared with that of the condenser.     

冷藏车层叠式蒸发器应用R404A与R22和R134a的比较

采用分布参数法对层叠式蒸发器建立数学模型，并对蒸发器采用R404A，R22和R134a时的换热和流动性能进行模拟比较。结果表明，在空调工况范围内，新型中低温混合制冷剂R404A具有R134a换热性能好和R22压降小的特点，能够很好地适用于冷藏车系统空调侧层叠式蒸发器。     

分液冷凝器在HFC410A空调系统的替换实验研究

汽液分离式冷凝器是一种管内高效冷凝换热器,它采用了一些强化换热手段,如多管程平行流冷凝、中间排液以及优化管子数目等。这里将该分液冷凝器用于HFC410A空调系统中,并进行了性能测试。结果表明:使用分液冷凝器后,HFC410A的制冷能力仅为原系统的96.4%,EER值为原来的93.8%,该分液冷凝器无法实现替换目的。通过分析发现,HFC410A对分液冷凝器的热力性能影响较大,HFC410A在分液冷凝器的气液分离效果变差,不再维持HCFC22在分液冷凝器中表现出来的近等温冷凝过程;在相同的冷凝温度下,HFC410A系统的循环质量流量较HCFC22系统减少1.2%~9.2%时,分液冷凝器的压降提高39.1%~52.6%。     

Quick and empirical correlations for refrigerant pressure drop in mobile air conditioning system evaporators

In heat exchanger design and simulation, a precise refrigerant pressure drop prediction is difficult because of limited correlation's accuracy. In the present paper, several quick and accurate empirical correlations for refrigerant pressure drop of the typical evaporators (laminated plate evaporator and minichannel parallel flow (MCPF) evaporator) used in mobile air conditioning (MAC) system were proposed. A factor which was related with the refrigerant mass flow rate, thermodynamic properties and refrigerant status was introduced. The types of evaporator and refrigerant were considered in the correlations which were available under typical MAC evaporator application conditions. The analysis results showed the refrigerant pressure drops were implied in a linear relationship with the proposed factor. The predicted data agreed with the experimental data very well. For laminated palate evaporators, the average deviations were 1.8% and 0.7% for R134a and R1234yf, respectively. For MCPF evaporator, the average deviations were 4.5% and 0.6% for R134a and R1234yf, respectively.     

Reasons for drop in shell-and-tube condenser performance when replacing R22 with zeotropic mixtures. Part 1. Analysis of experimental findings

An experimental and theoretical investigation was made to find out the reasons for the drop in shell-and-tube condenser performance when replacing R22 with a zeotropic mixture R407C. Measurements show that at lower condenser loads the reduction in performance can be as large as 70% compared to the full condenser load. Calculation results are compared with experimental results for two different condensers, one with micro-finned tubes and one with 3-D finned tubes. Calculations show that the degree of mixing of the newly formed condensate on a tube and the drained condensate is a factor influential enough to explain the performance drop. 3-D finned tubes seem to have better mixing in the condensate than integral finned tubes.     

制冷剂R32特性及其用于空气源热泵热水器的理论循环分析

介绍R32,R22和R407C以及R410A四种制冷剂的流动特性和热力学特性,并对采用这4种制冷剂的空气源热泵热水器进行理论循环分析。从计算结果可以看出,与采用其他3种制冷剂的系统对比,采用R32制冷剂的系统具有较低的压缩比,较高的理论COP以及容积制热量;在当前阶段,R32是用于空气源热泵热水器的一种较好的制冷剂。     

Experimental and numerical study on microchannel and round-tube condensers in a R410A residential air-conditioning system

The effect of different type of condensers on the performance of R410A residential air-conditioning systems was investigated in this study. Two R410A residential air-conditioning systems, one with a microchannel condenser and the other with a round-tube condenser, were examined experimentally, while the other components of the two systems were identical except the condensers. Two condensers had almost same package volumes. The two systems were operated in separate environmental chambers and their performance was measured in ARI A, B, and C conditions. Both the COP and cooling capacity of the system with the microchannel condenser were higher than those for the round-tube condenser in all test conditions. The refrigerant charge amount and the refrigerant pressure drop were measured; the results showed a reduction of charge and pressure drop in the microchannel condenser. A numerical model for the microchannel condenser was developed and its results were compared with the experiments. The model simulated the condenser with consideration given to the non-uniform air distribution at the face of the condenser and refrigerant distribution in the headers. The results showed that the effect of the air and refrigerant distribution was not a significant parameter in predicting the capacity of the microchannel condenser experimentally examined in this study. Temperature contours, generated from the measured air exit temperatures, showed the refrigerant distribution in the microchannel condenser indirectly. The temperature contours developed from the model results showed a relatively good agreement with the contours for measured air exit temperatures of the microchannel condenser.     

CO2 and R410A flow boiling heat transfer, pressure drop, and flow pattern at low temperatures in a horizontal smooth tube

Flow boiling heat transfer coefficient, pressure drop, and flow pattern are investigated in the horizontal smooth tube of 6.1 mm inner diameter for CO₂, R410A, and R22. Flow boiling heat transfer coefficients are measured at the constant wall temperature conditions, while pressure drop measurement and flow visualization are carried out at adiabatic conditions. This research is performed at evaporation temperatures of −15 and −30 °C, mass flux from 100 to 400 kg m⁻² s⁻¹, and heat flux from 5 to 15 kW m⁻² for vapor qualities ranging from 0.1 to 0.8. The measured R410A heat transfer coefficients are compared to other published data. The comparison of heat transfer coefficients for CO₂, R410A, and R22 is presented at various heat fluxes, mass fluxes, and evaporation temperatures. The difference of coefficients for each refrigerant is explained with the Gungor and Winterton [K.E. Gungor, R.H.S. Winterton, A general correlation for flow boiling in tubes and annuli, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 29 (1986) 351–358] correlation based on the thermophysical properties of refrigerants. The Wattelet et al. [J.P. Wattelet, J.C. Chato, B.R. Christoffersen, J.A. Gaibel, M. Ponchner, P.J. Kenny, R.L. Shimon, T.C. Villaneuva, N.L. Rhines, K.A. Sweeney, D.G. Allen, T.T. Heshberger, Heat Transfer Flow Regimes of Refrigerants in a Horizontal-tube Evaporator, ACRC TR-55, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1994], and Gungor and Winterton [K.E. Gungor, R.H.S. Winterton, A general correlation for flow boiling in tubes and annuli, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 29 (1986) 351–358] correlations give the best agreement with the measured heat transfer coefficients for CO₂ and R410A. Pressure drop for CO₂, R410A, and R22 at various mass fluxes, evaporation temperatures and qualities is presented in this paper. The Müller-Steinhagen and Heck [H. Müller-Steinhagen, K. Heck, A simple friction pressure drop correlation for two-phase flow in pipes, Chem. Eng. Process. 20 (1986) 297–308], and Friedel [L. Friedel, Improved friction pressure correlations for horizontal and vertical two-phase pipe flow, in: The European Two-Phase Flow Group Meeting, Ispra, Italy, 1979 (paper E2)] correlation can predict most of the measured pressure drop within the range of ±30%. The relation between pressure drop and properties for each refrigerant is described by applying the Müller-Steinhagen and Heck correlation. The observed two-phase flow patterns for CO₂ and R410A are presented and compared with flow pattern maps. Most of the flow patterns can be determined by the Weisman et al. [J. Weisman, D. Duncan, J. Gibson, T. Crawford, Effect of fluid properties and pipe diameter on two-phase flow patterns in horizontal lines, Int. J. Multiphase Flow 5 (1979) 437–462] flow pattern map.     

Thermal Conductivity of the Refrigerant Mixtures R404A, R407C, R410A, and R507A

New thermal conductivity data of the refrigerant mixtures R404A, R407C, R410A, and R507C are presented. For all these refrigerants, the thermal conductivity was measured in the vapor phase at atmospheric pressure over a temperature range from 250 to 400 K and also at moderate pressures. A modified steady-state hot-wire method was used for these measurements. The cumulative correction for end effects, eccentricity of the wire, and radiation heat transfer did not exceed 2%. Calculated uncertainties in experimental thermal conductivity are, in general, less than ±1.5%. All available literature thermal conductivity data for R404A, R407C, R410A, and R507C were evaluated to identify the most accurate data on which to base the thermal conductivity model. The thermal conductivity is modeled with the residual concept. In this representation, the thermal conductivity was composed of two contributions: a dilute gas term which is a function only of temperature and a residual term which is a function only of density. The models cover a wide range of conditions except for the region of the thermal conductivity critical enhancement. The resulting correlations are applicable for the thermal conductivity of dilute gas, superheated vapor, and saturated liquid and vapor far away from the critical point. Comparisons are made for all available literature data.