The group polarization phenomenon.

Experiments exploring the effects of group discussion on attitudes, jury decisions, ethical decisions, judgments, person perceptions, negotiations, and risk taking (other than the choice-dilemmas task) are generally consistent with a "group polarization" hypothesis, derived from the risky-shift literature. Recent attempts to explain the phenomenon fall mostly into 1 of 3 theoretical approaches: (a) group decision rules, especially majority rule (which is contradicted by available data); (b) interpersonal comparisons (for which there is mixed support); and (c) informational influence (for which there is strong support). A conceptual scheme is presented which integrates the latter 2 viewpoints and suggests how attitudes develop in a social context. (41/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exemplar-based accounts of relations between classification, recognition, and typicality.

Previously published sets of classification and old–new recognition memory data are reanalyzed within the framework of an exemplar-based generalization model. The key assumption in the model is that, whereas classification decisions are based on the similarity of a probe to exemplars of a target category relative to exemplars of contrast categories, recognition decisions are based on overall summed similarity of a probe to all exemplars. The summed-similarity decision rule is shown to be consistent with a wide variety of recognition memory data obtained in classification learning situations and may provide a unified approach to understanding relations between categorization and recognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quality of decisions: Individuals versus real and synthetic groups.

Compared the quality of decisions on 3 economic problems for individuals, 2 forms of real 5-person groups, and 3 synthetic group-decision rules. A total of 185 undergraduates first made decisions as individuals or as group members and then participated in the opposite condition. Real groups with no previous exposure to the problems made better decisions than did groups whose members had previously made individual decisions on the same tasks, and made decisions superior to a plurality synthetic decision rule, but inferior to the "best man" or I. Lorge and N. Solomon's Model A rule (1955). Both types of real groups outperformed individuals. The relationship between decision quality and riskiness of decision alternatives varied in the 3 decision tasks. Real groups with no prior exposure to the task responded to the suggested risk norm more appropriately than did other decision-making units. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Transgenerational family therapies.

Reviews the book, Transgenerational family therapies by Laura Giat Roberto (see record 1992-98006-000). This book presents a "kinder, gentler" perspective to understanding families. It is divided into two basic sections: theoretical overviews of Bowen, Whitaker, Boszormenyi-Nagy, and object relations family models; later, Roberto presents clinical examples and guidance for the use of a transgenerational approach. According to the reviewer, Roberto has given a well-crafted overview of dominant perspectives which would be of benefit to any psychotherapist, including individual and family therapists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role perceptions of successful and unsuccessful supervisors.

The self-perceived role of first-line supervisors was compared with the role perceived by their superiors. 18 items (word pairs) differentiated between the "high" and "low" groups at the 5% level or better. "The most outstanding self-perception of the 'poor' supervisor is his sales approach to human relations… [while]… the 'good' supervisor… sees himself as respecting the rights and dignity of others." Conclusions are explored on the basis of the assumptions that (1) the self-perceptions are in approximate accord with the superiors' perceptions, and (2) the differences in self-perception reflect qualities that distinguish good from poor supervisors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparative study of individual, majority, and group judgment.

"The performance of individuals working alone, under majority rule, and as members of discussion groups were compared on a complex intellectual task… . The results indicated that:… Majority decisions, when deadlocks are evenly divided between right and wrong, decisions, are not significantly different from those made by the average individual and are inferior to those of the best members of the group working alone… . Group decisions, reached through cooperative deliberation, are significantly superior to decisions made by individual members working alone and to majority rule." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Polysomnographie, chronobiologie et approche cognitive dans le traitement de la dépression majeure.

Apart from pharmacotherapy and biological conceptualisations, the cognitive theory and its therapeutic approach are likely the most used in the conceptualization and the treatment of major depression. The cognitive model attempts to explain how certain factors activate a dysfunctional cognitive structure. As such, the cognitive therapy focuses on the modification of negative and depressive cognitive distortions. Despite a success rate of approximately 66%, a significant proportion of patients (30%) suffer a relapse within one year of treatment. This suggests that the cognitive approach is not sufficient to explain the development, maintenance, remission and relapse of a major depressive episode. It is proposed here that sleep and chronobiological factors should be taken into consideration in order to improve the understanding of major depression and to maximize the chances of complete remission in those who suffer from this disorder. Indeed, both research and clinical reports have revealed that major depression is accompanied by sleep disruptions. More specifically, three types of problems have been identified: (1) Sleep discontinuity (reduced total sleep time, increased sleep latency, increased awakenings, reduced sleep efficiency); (2) decreases in slow wave sleep (SWS); (3) changes in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep characteristics (decreased REM latency, increased REM density, increase in the length of the first REM period and in the quantity of REM sleep). Of particular interest is the observation that, when the depressive symptoms disappear, sleep improves. Recent research, however reveals that certain sleep abnormalities, namely short REM latency and reduced SWS, are more robust or trait-like and are indicators of an increased risk of relapse. Furthermore, other studies suggest that the presence of these sleep abnormalities may facilitate the onset of depression. Models of sleep-wake regulation which have attempted to explain the sleep characteristics of depression are reviewed. These point to underlying chronobiological factors such as phase advances of circadian rhythms and suggest that such factors are responsible for the manifestation of the sleep disturbances observed in major depression. Fortunately, techniques that improve sleep quality and resynchronize the biological rhythms are available. Sleep hygiene maximizes sleep habits that facilitate normal sleep, particularly sleep initiation, sleep continuity and length of sleep. On the chronobiological side, bright light exposure and sleep schedule manipulations can resynchronize sleep periods with the appropriate circadian phase. It is thus proposed that sleep recordings, namely polysomnography, which have recently become more readily available (particularly with ambulatory devices), be used to select adequate treatment, and to support decisions regarding treatment duration. Similarly, sleep hygiene and chronobiological treatments should be integrated in the treatment of major depression. This article concludes by proposing a hierarchical model of interventions that combine polysomnography and chronobiological techniques with the classic cognitive approach to major depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Practice variation in the management of pharyngitis: the importance of variability in patients' clinical characteristics and in physicians' responses to them

The objective of this study was to assess whether geographic differences in antibiotic-prescribing rates for patients with pharyngitis could be explained by intersite differences in patients' clinical characteristics and in how physicians responded to these clinical cues when making decisions. As part of the initial phase of a prospective controlled trial to improve physicians' diagnostic ability, the authors enrolled cohorts of consecutive patients seen at staff-model--HMO student health services in Pennsylvania and Nebraska. Physicians' decisions whether to prescribe antibiotics for 310 consecutive patients presenting with pharyngitis to the former and 214 such patients presenting to the latter at the time of the initial visit were examined. There was a large discrepancy between the antibiotic-prescribing rates at the student health services in Pennsylvania, 106/310, 32.4%, and Nebraska, 156/214, 72.9%. The clinical variables significantly independently associated with treatment at both sites in a logistic regression model were fever, adjusted odds ratio = 2.1 (95% CI = 1.1, 3.8); exudates, 5.4 (2.8, 10); palatine petechiae, 6.5 (1.5, 28); rhinorrhea, 0.46, (0.25, 0.85); and high risk of complications, 3.8 (1.04, 14). There was a significant interaction between site and anterior cervical adenopathy, 5.5 (1.6, 19); and a borderline interaction between site and rhinorrhea, 2.4 (0.89, 6.7). Site was not a significant independent predictor of treatment, 1.8 (0.45, 6.6.). Practice variation was related to geographic differences in patients' clinical characteristics and in how physicians responded to these factors when prescribing antibiotics. How physicians weight patients' clinical characteristics when making decisions may be an important element of their "practice styles."     

Spatial and verbal rivalry in a Stroop-like task.

Examined the adequacy of P. Fraisse's (see record 1970-11728-001) empirical rule that reading is faster than naming and its generalization to the notion that reading interferes with naming as an explanation of Stroop-like interference effects. A spatial analog of J. R. Stroop's (1935) experiment was used, in which a total of 12 paid graduate and undergraduate students responded either to the meaning of the words "above" and "below" or to their above and below positions on a screen. Exp I showed that when spatial position was processed faster than word meaning, incongruent spatial positions interfered with decisions about word meaning, but incongruent word meanings did not interfere with decisions about spatial position. Exp II showed that when word meaning was processed faster than spatial position, the direction of interference was reversed, and when the processing times were approximately equal, interference was bidirectional. It is concluded that whether one obtains verbal interference effects on nonverbal decisions or nonverbal interference effects on verbal decisions depends on the relative speeds with which the 2 forms of information are processed. (French summary) (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Frameworks for understanding emotions and their development: Functionalist and dynamic systems approaches.

In recent years, both functionalist and dynamic systems approaches have assumed increasing prominence in the study of emotion and its development, but the similarities and differences between these perspectives remain largely unexplored and open to more systematic examination. In this article, the authors argue that both approaches share a systems view of emotion and regard emotion in relational, process terms. However, each approach adopts a distinct level of analysis and distinct types of explanation for emotion and its development. Whereas the functionalist approach appeals to formal and final causes to explain patterning in emotion at the level of organism-environment relations, the dynamic systems approach appeals to efficient and material causes to explain emotion at the specific content level of behavior in context. Whether these approaches complement or conflict with one another depends on the extent to which the dynamic systems approach admits abstraction into its explanatory framework. A. Fogel's social process theory and M. D. Lewis' approach to emotion self-organization are discussed in this regard. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Values, valences, and course enrollment: Testing the role of personal values within an expectancy-valence framework.

This study was a test of hypotheses that concerned the enrollment decisions of 444 university students who enrolled in humanities, social science, or science courses at Flinders University in South Australia. The following predictions were developed within the framework of expectancy–value (valence) theory: (a) Enrollment decisions would be related to the subjective value (valence) that students assign to mathematics and English and to their self-concepts of ability in mathematics and English (assumed to relect expectations of success); (b) valence measures would be related to underlying value dimensions (restrictive control, intellectual orientation, and prosocial concern) derived from subjects' ratings of the 18 instrumental values from the Rokeach Value Survey; and (c) gender differences would occur in the responses of male and female students to the measures of values and valences. In general, the results supported these predictions. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research on gender differences in achievement patterns in mathematics and English and in relations to assumptions about relations between expectations and valences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Legal issues and behaviour modification: A Canadian perspective.

The use of behavior modification techniques has been a matter of litigation in the US courts. The resulting judicial decisions have limited some aspects of the application of behavior modification techniques. Similar litigation is beginning to take place in Canada. The US cases will probably have some value as legal precedents before the Canadian courts. These US judicial decisions as well as related articles from legal and behavioral psychology journals and texts are reviewed. A series of guidelines is presented that behavior modification practitioners might adopt to prevent a similar legal-behavior modification conflict from developing in Canada. (French abstract) (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relief from Bid Mistakes

Contractor mistakes in the bidding of construction projects are not unusual occurrences and can delay the planned starting date of projects. It is important that mistakes be handled expeditiously and correctly. This paper analyzes several important court decisions related to bid mistakes to determine the inquiries an appellate court will ask and how it will react to the answers to its inquiries. The decision-making process is formulated in a flowchart format that models the judicial decision-making process. The flowchart can be used to analyze other disputes. Based on the analysis of court decisions, the judicial decision-making process was modeled and applied to a case study example. The outcome of the inquiry analysis was identical to that of the judicial decision.     

A note on "The Non-Directive Approach in Advertising Appeals".

Comments on "The non-directive approach in advertising appeals" by H. D. Hadley (1953). The aim of this article was to point up some similarities between certain types of therapy and advertising techniques. Comparison between non-directive therapy and inferred advertising can possibly be made concerning the attempt to reduce threat. The advisability of reducing threat, in any field of human endeavor, is psychologically sound. Further comparison, however, can only be drawn by doing injustice to the basic principles of client-centered therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The rule of law in an instant society: Implications for law and psychology.

Discusses the impact of the "instant" society of modern America (and the resulting demand in society for instant answers to complex social problems) and the apotheosis of public opinion polls on the courts, judges, and legal institutions of the US during the 1980's. It is argued that institutional attacks on judicial institutions throughout the country reflect a dangerous impatience with the rule of law. It is concluded that Americans must work to construct a safety net for civil liberties and individual freedoms that are threatened by the current emphasis on quick solutions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Atypical squamous cells, cannot exclude high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion. A follow-up study of conventional and liquid-based preparations in a high-risk population

We compared the histologic follow-up of 368 smears or slides with an interpretation of "atypical squamous cells, cannot rule out high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion" (ASC-H) based on conventional and liquid-based preparations and age groups in a high-risk population. Patients with an ASC-H interpretation were 17 to 87 years old (mean, 36.8 years). The specimens were 52 liquid-based preparations and 316 conventional smears. For 218 cases (59.2%), including 28 liquid-based preparations (65%) and 190 conventional smears (58%), histologic follow-up was available. In 20 liquid-based preparations (71%) and 152 conventional smears (80.0%), cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or higher was revealed on subsequent biopsy. Other results were as follows: liquid-based preparations, CIN1, 11 (55%); CIN2/3, 9 (45%); conventional smears, CIN1, 78 (51.3%); CIN2/3, 70 (46.1%); squamous cell carcinoma, 4 (2.6%). There was no statistically significant difference in the incidence of CIN or higher on subsequent biopsy after an interpretation of ASC-H based on preparation types. The incidences of CIN in patients 40 years old or older and patients younger than 40 years were 66% and 84%, respectively, a statistically significant difference. Because of the high incidence of clinically significant lesions noted on subsequent follow-up, patients with an interpretation of ASC-H should be observed closely and referred for colposcopic examination regardless of their age.     

Rule-governed behavior as a psychological process.

Examines rule-governed behavior from the vantage point of cognitive psychology. It is suggested that rule following replaces causal analysis as an explanatory device in psychology. Rules are defined, and their relations to formal languages, grammars, and abstract automata are discussed. The concept of "contingent rewrite rule" is introduced in order to suggest a formalism for explaining an organism's interaction with its environment. The metatheoretical position is related to some current investigations in cognitive psychology. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contested adoption cases: Grounds for conflict between psychology and the law.

Conflicting psychological testimony, statutory limitations, and judicial naivete with respect to child development concepts can often result in decisions in contested adoption cases that are not in the child's best interests. Illustrative case studies are presented, and 3 recommendations are made that might reduce this potentially harmful conflict between psychology and the law: (1) education of the legal profession, (2) more effective use of a child advocate system, and (3) legislative recognition of the concepts of children's rights and "psychological parenting." (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

'Ageism' and right to die litigation

This study examines 88 reported judicial decisions involving adult patients and decisions about life-prolonging medical treatments. The patient's age by itself does not appear to be a factor influencing findings of mental competency or incompetency or findings of the appropriateness or inappropriateness of abating life-prolonging medical treatments. Neither can an explicit ageist bias be extracted from an analysis of the text of judicial decisions in this arena. Various potential explanations for the lack of apparent ageist bias are suggested.