Backscattering measurements of atmospheric aerosols at CO2 laser wavelengths: implications of aerosol spectral structure on differential-absorption lidar retrievals of molecular species

The volume backscattering coefficients of atmospheric aerosol were measured with a tunable CO2 lidar system at various wavelengths in Utah (a desert environment) along a horizontal path a few meters above the ground. In deducing the aerosol backscattering, a deconvolution (to remove the smearing effect of the long CO2 lidar pulse and the lidar limited bandwidth) and a constrained-slope method were employed. The spectral shape beta(lambda) was similar for all the 13 measurements during a 3-day period. A mean aerosol backscattering-wavelength dependence beta(lambda) was computed from the measurements and used to estimate the error Delta(CL) (concentration-path-length product) in differential-absorption lidar measurements for various gases caused by the systematic aerosol differential backscattering and the error that is due to fluctuations in the aerosol backscattering. The water-vapor concentration-path-length product CL and the average concentration C = /L for a path length L computed from the range-resolved lidar measurements is consistently in good agreement with the water-vapor concentration measured by a meteorological station. However, I was unable to deduce, reliably, the range-resolved water-vapor concentration C(r), which is the derivative of the range-dependent product CL, because of the effect of residual noise caused mainly by errors in the deconvolved lidar measurements.     

Ozone differential absorption lidar algorithm intercomparison

An intercomparison of ozone differential absorption lidar algorithms was performed in 1996 within the framework of the Network for the Detection of Stratospheric Changes (NDSC) lidar working group. The objective of this research was mainly to test the differentiating techniques used by the various lidar teams involved in the NDSC for the calculation of the ozone number density from the lidar signals. The exercise consisted of processing synthetic lidar signals computed from simple Rayleigh scattering and three initial ozone profiles. Two of these profiles contained perturbations in the low and the high stratosphere to test the vertical resolution of the various algorithms. For the unperturbed profiles the results of the simulations show the correct behavior of the lidar processing methods in the low and the middle stratosphere with biases of less than 1% with respect to the initial profile to as high as 30 km in most cases. In the upper stratosphere, significant biases reaching 10% at 45 km for most of the algorithms are obtained. This bias is due to the decrease in the signal-to-noise ratio with altitude, which makes it necessary to increase the number of points of the derivative low-pass filter used for data processing. As a consequence the response of the various retrieval algorithms to perturbations in the ozone profile is much better in the lower stratosphere than in the higher range. These results show the necessity of limiting the vertical smoothing in the ozone lidar retrieval algorithm and questions the ability of current lidar systems to detect long-term ozone trends above 40 km. Otherwise the simulations show in general a correct estimation of the ozone profile random error and, as shown by the tests involving the perturbed ozone profiles, some inconsistency in the estimation of the vertical resolution among the lidar teams involved in this experiment.     

Simulations of the observation of clouds and aerosols with the Experimental Lidar in Space Equipment system

We carried out a simulation study for the observation of clouds and aerosols with the Japanese Experimental Lidar in Space Equipment (ELISE), which is a two-wavelength backscatter lidar with three detection channels. The National Space Development Agency of Japan plans to launch the ELISE on the Mission Demonstrate Satellite 2 (MDS-2). In the simulations, the lidar return signals for the ELISE are calculated for an artificial, two-dimensional atmospheric model including different types of clouds and aerosols. The signal detection processes are simulated realistically by inclusion of various sources of noise. The lidar signals that are generated are then used as input for simulations of data analysis with inversion algorithms to investigate retrieval of the optical properties of clouds and aerosols. The results demonstrate that the ELISE can provide global data on the structures and optical properties of clouds and aerosols. We also conducted an analysis of the effects of cloud inhomogeneity on retrievals from averaged lidar profiles. We show that the effects are significant for space lidar observations of optically thick broken clouds.     

Intrapulse temporal and wavelength shifts of a high-power 2.1-µm Ho:YAG laser and their potential influence on atmospheric lidar measurements

A high-power, flash-lamp-pumped, Q-switched Ho:YAG laser has been developed to produce up to 150 mJ in a 100-ns Q-switched pulse. The Ho laser was initially used in a direct detection lidar-differential absorption lidar (DIAL) system to measure vertical density profiles of aerosols and water vapor in the atmosphere. It was found, however, that the Ho laser operated simultaneously on two closely spaced spectral emission wavelengths (2.090 and 2.097 μm) and that the distribution of energy between the two wavelengths could change significantly on time scales of several seconds to minutes. Such intrapulse temporal and wavelength shifts were found to alter the atmospheric lidar return significantly because one of the laser lines coincided with a water vapor absorption line in the atmosphere. This laser spectral output problem was overcome by the use of intracavity étalons that controlled the laser spectral-temporal characteristics but reduced the laser output energy to approximately 75 mJ/pulse in a 100-ns pulse length. These results are important as they serve to point out the difficulties of developing and using a high-power 2.1- μm Ho laser for atmospheric lidar when high-resolution spectral and temporal characteristics can significantly influence the lidar return and be misinterpreted as resulting from atmospheric signals.     

Two-wavelength lidar inversion algorithm for a two-component atmosphere

A method for the boundary-value determination of aerosol extinction profiles from backscatter lidar measurements is presented. Artificially generated lidar signals from two-component inhomogeneous model atmospheres are inverted with the information from two wavelengths (532 and 1064 nm) simultaneously. The solution for the vertical aerosol extinction profile is formulated with Klett's far-end solution. The boundary value is expressed in terms of aerosol transmission along the lidar line according to Fernald's solution of the lidar equation. The aerosol transmission is determined iteratively with a transcendental equation on the assumption that a linear relationship exists between the extinction coefficients at both wavelengths. Inversion calculations are applied to model atmospheres with range-dependent lidar ratios representing the growth of aerosol particles caused by increasing relative humidity in the planetary boundary layer. For the inversion constant lidar ratios are assumed that vary between 40 and 70 sr. The numerical procedure turns out to be stable enough to provide meaningful results even in cases of misestimated lidar ratios. The application of the method is of less use for misestimated background radiation and low aerosol concentrations.     

Versatile mobile lidar system for environmental monitoring

A mobile lidar (light detection and ranging) system for environmental monitoring is described. The optical and electronic systems are housed in a truck with a retractable rooftop transmission and receiving mirror, connected to a 40-cm-diameter vertically looking telescope. Two injection-seeded Nd:YAG lasers are employed in connection with an optical parametric oscillator-optical parametric amplification transmitter, allowing deep-UV to mid-IR wavelengths to be generated. Fast switching that employs piezoelectric drivers allows multiwavelength differential absorption lidar for simultaneous measurements of several spectrally overlapping atmospheric species. The system can also be used in an imaging multispectral laser-induced fluorescence mode on solid targets. Advanced LabVIEW computer control and multivariate data processing render the system versatile for a multitude of measuring tasks. We illustrate the monitoring of industrial atmospheric mercury and hydrocarbon emissions, volcanic sulfur dioxide plume mapping, fluorescence lidar probing of seawater, and multispectral fluorescence imaging of the facades of a historical monument.     

Online estimation of vapor path-integrated concentration and absorptivity using multiwavelength differential absorption lidar

Differential absorption lidar data processing traditionally assumes knowledge of the spectral dependence of the absorptivity coefficients. While this is sometimes a good assumption, it is often not in complicated collection environments where the material present is ambiguous. We present an alternative approach that estimates the vapor path-integrated concentration (CL) and absorptivity (rho) in parallel by a processor capable of online implementation. The algorithm is based on an extended Kalman filter (EKF) for CL and a sequential maximum likelihood estimator for rho. The state model parameters of the EKF are also estimated sequentially together with CL and rho. The approach is illustrated on simulated and real topographic backscatter lidar data collected by the Edgewood Chemical Biological Center.     

Retrieving seawater-backscattering profiles from coupling Raman and elastic lidar data

We propose a technique for retrieving seawater-backscattering profiles that is based on the joint use of elastic and Raman lidar returns. We suggest using two lidar channels: the Raman channel and the elastic channel with a light frequency equal to a half-sum of initial and Raman-shifted frequencies of the Raman channel. These specific wavelengths provide the same attenuation laws for elastic and Raman signals if absorption and scattering spectra can be approximated by a power law. In particular, seawater supplies such a possibility in the region of 400-500 nm if extremely bioproductive waters are not considered and the chlorophyll absorption peak at 440 nm does not come out of the background of dissolved organic matter absorption. With these specific initial wavelengths, the elastic and Raman lidar returns differ only in the backscattering coefficients. Because the Raman-backscattering coefficient is constant along the profile, the (elastic-to-Raman) ratio of these lidar returns directly produces the profile of the elastic-backscattering coefficient. This technique stays valid even under multiple-scattering conditions, which is of great importance for seawater sounding.     

基于神经网络的侧向激光雷达信号去噪算法

针对侧向激光雷达应用于气溶胶探测领域时,雷达回波信号易受噪声影响这一问题,本文提出了一种基于神经网络的激光雷达信号去噪算法。该算法在卷积神经网络基础上融合残差学习法和批量标准化,引入了注意力机制,改进激活函数,提升了网络性能和学习效率。采用本文提出的方法对噪声进行预测,实现了信号和噪声的有效分离,提高了侧向激光雷达CCD图像的信噪比。实验结果表明,使用本文提出的去噪算法对侧向激光雷达CCD图像进行去噪,图像的峰值信噪比提高了约5 dB,信号相对误差减小至9.62%,本文提出的去噪算法优于小波变换、维纳滤波等去噪方法,验证了该方法的可行性和实用性。

     

Compact airborne lidar for tropospheric ozone: description and field measurements

An airborne lidar has been developed for tropospheric ozone monitoring. The transmitter module is based on a solid-state Nd:YAG laser and stimulated Raman scattering in deuterium to generate three wavelengths (266, 289, and 316 nm) that are used for differential ozone measurements. Both analog and photon-counting detection methods are used to produce a measurement range up to 8 km. The system has been flown on the French Fokker 27 aircraft to perform both lower tropospheric (0.5-4-km) and upper tropospheric (4-12-km) measurements, with a 1-min temporal resolution corresponding to a 5-km spatial resolution. The vertical resolution of the ozone profile can vary from 300 to 1000 m to accommodate either a large-altitude range or optimum ozone accuracy. Comparisons with in situ ozone measurements performed by an aircraft UV photometer or ozone sondes and with ozone vertical profiles obtained by a ground-based lidar are presented. The accuracy of the tropospheric ozone measurements is generally better than 10-15%, except when aerosol interferences cannot be corrected. Examples of ozone profiles for different atmospheric conditions demonstrate the utility of the airborne lidar in the study of dynamic or photochemical mesoscale processes that control tropospheric ozone.     

Multiple-scattering lidar retrieval method: tests on Monte Carlo simulations and comparisons with in situ measurements

A multiple-field-of-view (MFOV) lidar measurement and solution technique has been developed to exploit the retrievable particle extinction and size information contained in the multiple-scattering contributions to aerosol lidar returns. We describe the proposed solution algorithm. The primary retrieved parameters are the extinction coefficient at the lidar wavelength and the effective particle diameter from which secondary products such as the extinction at other wavelengths and the liquid-water content (LWC) of liquid-phase clouds can be derived. The solutions are compared with true values in a series of Monte Carlo simulations and with in-cloud measurements. Good agreement is obtained for the simulations. For the field experiment, the retrieved effective droplet diameter and LWC for the available seven cases studied are on average 15% and 35% (worst case) smaller than the measured data, respectively. In the latter case, the analysis shows that the differences cannot be attributed solely to lidar inversion errors. Despite the limited penetration depth (150-300 m) of the lidar pulses, the results of the studied cases indicate that the retrieved lidar solutions remain statistically representative of measurements performed over the full cloud extent. Long-term MFOV lidar monitoring could thus become a practical and economical option for cloud statistical studies but more experimentation on more varied cloud conditions, especially for LWC, is still needed.     

Aerosol and cloud backscatter at 1.06, 1.54, and 0.53 mum by airborne hard-target-calibrated Nd:YAG /methane Raman lidar

A lidar instrument was developed to make simultaneous measurements at three distinct wavelengths in the visible and near infrared at 0.532, 1.064, and 1.54 mum with high cross-sectional calibration accuracy. Aerosol and cloud backscatter cross sections were acquired during November and December 1989 and May and June 1990 by the NASA DC-8 aircraft as part of the Global Backscatter Experiment. The instrument, methodology, and measurement results are described. A Nd:YAG laser produced 1.064- and 0.532-mum energy. The 1.54-mum transmitted pulse was generated by Raman-shifted downconversion of the 1.064-mum pulse through a Raman cell pressured with methane gas. The lidar could be pointed in the nadir or zenith direction from the aircraft. A hard-target-based calibration procedure was used to obtain the ratio of the system calibration between the three wavelengths, and the absolute calibration was referenced to the 0.532-mum lidar molecular backscatter cross section for the clearest scattering regions. From the relative wavelength calibration, the aerosol backscatter cross sections at the longer wavelengths are resolved for values as small as 1% of the molecular cross section. Backscatter measurement accuracies are better than 10(-9) (m sr)(-1) at 1.064 and 1.54 mum. Results from the Pacific Ocean region of the multiwavelength backscatter dependence are presented. Results show extensive structure and variation for the aerosol cross sections. The range of observed aerosol cross section is over 4 orders of magnitude, from less than 10(-9) (m sr)(-1) to greater than 10(-5) (m sr)(-1).     

Complementary study of differential absorption lidar optimization in direct and heterodyne detections

A detailed study using both analytical and numerical calculations of direct and heterodyne differential absorption lidar (DIAL) techniques is conducted to complement previous studies. The DIAL measurement errors depend on key experimental parameters, some of which can be adjusted to minimize the statistical error. Accordingly, the pertinent criteria on optical thickness, the number of photons emitted at the on and off wavelengths, are discussed to reduce the relative error on the total column content or range-resolved measurements that rely on either hard target or atmospheric backscatter returns. In direct detection, the optimal optical thickness decreases from 1.3 to 0.8 when the background increases while the on-line-to-off-line optimal energy ratio decreases from 3.6 to 2.7. In heterodyne detection, the minimum error is obtained for an optical thickness of 1.2 and an energy ratio of 4.3.     

Analytical solution of the two-frequency lidar inversion technique

A two-frequency lidar inversion on the assumptions of a range-independent relationship between the extinction coefficients of the two considered lidar wavelengths and of constant extinction-to-backscatter ratios was originally developed by Potter [Appl. Opt. 26, 1250 (1987)]. It is an iterative procedure to retrieve the boundary value for solution of the single-scatter lidar equation. This boundary value is expressed by the aerosol transmission along the evaluated lidar path. Recently, Kunz [Appl. Opt. 38, 1015 (1999)] stated that there is not enough information in the lidar signals of two wavelengths to obtain a unique solution for the boundary value and hence for the aerosol extinction profile. It is shown that a unique solution of the two-frequency lidar inversion exists, for which an analytical expression of the boundary value and, hence, the aerosol extinction profile, is given.     

Effect of speckle on lidar pulse-pair ratio statistics

The ratio of temporally adjacent lidar pulse returns is commonly used in differential absorption lidar (DIAL) to reduce correlated noise. These pulses typically are generated at different wavelengths with the assumption that the dominant noise is common to both. This is not the case when the mean number of laser speckle integrated per pulse by the lidar receiver is small (namely, less than 10 speckles at each wavelength). In this case a large increase in the standard deviation of the ratio data results. We demonstrate this effect both theoretically and experimentally. The theoretical value for the expected standard deviation of the pulse-pair ratio data compares well with the measured values that used a dual CO(2) laser-based lidar with a hard target. Pulse averaging statistics of the pulse-pair data obey the expected varsigma(1)/ radicalN reduction in the standard deviation, varsigma(N), for N-pulse averages. We consider the ratio before average, average before ratio, and log of the ratio before average methods for noise reduction in the lidar equation. The implications of our results are discussed in the context of dual-laser versus single-laser lidar configurations.     

Statistics of the slope-method estimator

The slope method has customarily been used and is still used for inversion of atmospheric optical parameters, extinction, and backscatter in homogeneous atmospheres from lidar returns. Our aim is to study the underlying statistics of the old slope method and ultimately to compare its inversion performance with that of the present-day nonlinear least-squares solution (the so-called exponential-curve fitting). The contents are twofold: First, an analytical study is conducted to characterize the bias and the mean-square-estimation error of the regression operator, which permits estimation of the optical parameters from the logarithm of the range-compensated lidar return. Second, universal plots for most short- and far-range tropospheric backscatter lidars are presented as a rule of thumb for obtaining the optimum regression interval length that yields unbiased estimates. As a result, the simple graphic basis of the slope method is still maintained, and its inversion performance improves up to that of the present-day computer-oriented exponential-curve fitting, which ends the controversy between these two algorithms.     

Retrieval of stratospheric aerosol size distributions and integral properties from simulated lidar backscatter measurements

A new approach for retrieving aerosol properties from extinction spectra is extended to retrieve aerosol properties from lidar backscatter measurements. In this method it is assumed that aerosol properties are expressed as a linear combination of backscatters at three or fewer wavelengths commonly used in lidar measurements. The coefficients in the weighted linear combination are obtained by minimization of the retrieval error averaged for a set of testing size distributions. The formulas can be used easily by investigators to retrieve aerosol properties from lidar backscatter measurements such as the Lidar In-Space Technology Experiment and Pathfinder Instruments for Clouds and Aerosols Spaceborne Observations.     

Estimating random errors due to shot noise in backscatter lidar observations

We discuss the estimation of random errors due to shot noise in backscatter lidar observations that use either photomultiplier tube (PMT) or avalanche photodiode (APD) detectors. The statistical characteristics of photodetection are reviewed, and photon count distributions of solar background signals and laser backscatter signals are examined using airborne lidar observations at 532 nm using a photon-counting mode APD. Both distributions appear to be Poisson, indicating that the arrival at the photodetector of photons for these signals is a Poisson stochastic process. For Poisson- distributed signals, a proportional, one-to-one relationship is known to exist between the mean of a distribution and its variance. Although the multiplied photocurrent no longer follows a strict Poisson distribution in analog-mode APD and PMT detectors, the proportionality still exists between the mean and the variance of the multiplied photocurrent. We make use of this relationship by introducing the noise scale factor (NSF), which quantifies the constant of proportionality that exists between the root mean square of the random noise in a measurement and the square root of the mean signal. Using the NSF to estimate random errors in lidar measurements due to shot noise provides a significant advantage over the conventional error estimation techniques, in that with the NSF, uncertainties can be reliably calculated from or for a single data sample. Methods for evaluating the NSF are presented. Algorithms to compute the NSF are developed for the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations lidar and tested using data from the Lidar In-space Technology Experiment.     

Information content of data measured with a multiple-field-of-view lidar

Lidars with multiple fields of view (MFOVs) are promising tools for gaining information on cloud particle size. We perform a study of the information content of MFOV lidar data with the use of eigenvalue analysis. The approach we have developed permits an understanding of the main features of MFOV lidars and provides a way to relate the accuracy of particle size estimation with the measurement uncertainty and the scattering geometry such as the cloud-base height and the lidar sounding depth. Second-order scattering computations are performed for an extended range of particle sizes and for a wide range of lidar fields of view (FOVs). The results obtained allow us to specify the areas of possible applications of these lidars in cloud studies. Comparison of results obtained with polarized and cross-polarized scattered components demonstrate that the cross-polarized signal should provide a more stable retrieval and is preferable when double scattering is highly dominant. Our analysis allows for the estimation of the optimal number of FOVs in the system and their angular distribution, so this work can be a useful tool for practical MFOV lidar design.     

Aerosol lidar intercomparison in the framework of the EARLINET project. 3. Raman lidar algorithm for aerosol extinction, backscatter, and lidar ratio

An intercomparison of the algorithms used to retrieve aerosol extinction and backscatter starting from Raman lidar signals has been performed by 11 groups of lidar scientists involved in the European Aerosol Research Lidar Network (EARLINET). This intercomparison is part of an extended quality assurance program performed on aerosol lidars in the EARLINET. Lidar instruments and aerosol backscatter algorithms were tested separately. The Raman lidar algorithms were tested by use of synthetic lidar data, simulated at 355, 532, 386, and 607 nm, with realistic experimental and atmospheric conditions taken into account. The intercomparison demonstrates that the data-handling procedures used by all the lidar groups provide satisfactory results. Extinction profiles show mean deviations from the correct solution within 10% in the planetary boundary layer (PBL), and backscatter profiles, retrieved by use of algorithms based on the combined Raman elastic-backscatter lidar technique, show mean deviations from solutions within 20% up to 2 km. The intercomparison was also carried out for the lidar ratio and produced profiles that show a mean deviation from the solution within 20% in the PBL. The mean value of this parameter was also calculated within a lofted aerosol layer at higher altitudes that is representative of typical layers related to special events such as Saharan dust outbreaks, forest fires, and volcanic eruptions. Here deviations were within 15%.