Post-failure behavior of two mine pillars confined with backfill

Researchers from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health used a series of instruments (borehole extensometers, earth pressure cells, and embedment strain gauges) to study the post-failure behavior of two pillars confined by backfill in a test section at the Buick Mine near Boss, MO, USA. Evaluation of these pillars was part of a research project to assess the safety of the test section when high-grade support pillars were mined.Data from borehole extensometers installed in several backfill-confined pillars and numerical modeling indicated that these pillars failed during extraction of the support pillars. Failure was corroborated by the post-yield pillar strain response in which the immediate elastic strain was negligible compared to the time-dependent strain component measured between blasting rounds.A three-dimensional, finite-element program with an elastic perfectly plastic material model was calibrated using extensometer data to estimate rock mass modulus and unconfined compressive strength. The resulting rock mass modulus was 45–60% of the average deformation modulus obtained from laboratory tests, and the calibrated compressive strength was 40% of average laboratory values. A rock mass modulus equal to 52% of the average laboratory deformation modulus was calculated using the rock mass rating (RMR) system. Rock mass strength was calculated with the generalized Hoek–Brown failure criterion for jointed rock and indicated that in situ strength was 33% of laboratory strength. Post-failure stresses calculated by the finite-element model were larger for confined pillars than post-failure stresses in unconfined pillars calculated using empirical plots. Data from the calibrated model provided a strain-hardening stress-versus-strain relationship. This knowledge is critical for the design of mines that use partially failed pillars to carry overburden load.     

Blast vibration damage to underground coal mines from adjacent open-pit blasting

A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of heavy blasting in open-pit coal mines on the stability of adjoining underground coal mine workings. Investigations were carried out at seven coal mines in India. Strata monitoring instruments, viz. borehole extensometers, convergence indicators, strain bars, stress capsules and load cells were installed in the roof and pillar. Monitoring of strata behaviour was carried out before and after the blasts. Arrangements were made to mount the transducers of seismographs in the roof and pillars to monitor vibration. Altogether, 202 production blasts were conducted and 622 vibration data were recorded.

The maximum peak particle velocity (PPV) recorded was 372.8 mm/s with the associated frequency of 78 Hz. At this magnitude of vibration, a coal block of 0.38 m³ detached from the roof. Minor damage in the form of loosened coal chips falling from the roof and the pillars was noticed at PPV level of 113 mm/s. Major damage was observed when the magnitude of PPV exceeded 181.9 mm/s. The damage is classified into three groups, viz. major damage, minor damage and no damage. The vibration levels in no damage zone are taken as safe level of vibration, The threshold value of vibration for the safety of underground workings is recommended based on the RMR of the roof rock.

It was also observed that the roof of underground roadways vibrated with 1.1–2.58 times higher amplitude of vibration compared to the pillars, The amplification was further higher at junctions. Monitoring of underground strata behaviour indicated, in all the mines, some amount of divergence between the roof and floor just after the blast, but, later on it was followed by convergence and most of the divergence that occurred was restored.     

An in situ monitoring campaign of a hard rock pillar at great depth within a Canadian mine

A recent research campaign at a Canadian nickel-copper mine involved instrumenting a hard rock sill drift pillar with an array of multi-point rod extensometers,distributed optical fibre strain sensors,and borehole pressure cells(BHPCs).The instrumentation spanned across a 15.24 m lengthwise segment of the relatively massive granitic pillar situated at a depth of 2.44 km within the mine.Between May 2016 and March 2017,the pillar's displacement and pressure response were measured and correlated with mining activities on the same level as the pillar,including:(1) mine-by of the pillar,(2) footwall drift development,and(3) ore body stoping operations.Regarding displacements of the pillar,the extensometers provided high temporal resolution(logged hourly) and the optical fibre strain sensors provide high spatial resolution(measured every 0.65 mm along the length of each sensor).The combination of sensing techniques allowed centimetre-scale rock mass bulking near the pillar sidewalls to be distinguished from micro strain-scale fracturing towards the core of the pillar.Additionally,the influence and extent of a mine-scale schistose shear zone transecting the pillar was identified.By converting measured rock mass displacement to velocity,a process was demonstrated which allowed mining activities inducing displacements to be categorised by time-duration and cumulative displacement.In over half of the analysed mining activities,displacements were determined to prolong for over an hour,predominately resulting in submillimetre cumulative displacements,but in some cases multi-centimetre cumulative displacements were observed.This time-dependent behaviour was more pronounced within the vicinity of the plumb shear zone.Displacement measurements were also used to assess selected support member load and elongation mobilisation per mining activity.It was found that a combined static load and elongation capacity of reinforcing members was essential to maintaining excavation stability,while permitting gradual shedding of stress through controlled pillar sidewall displacements.     

急倾斜三软厚煤层留小煤柱沿空护巷技术

在急倾斜三软厚煤层走向长壁俯伪斜采煤条件下实施留小煤柱沿空护巷十分困难,煤柱稳定性和巷道围岩变形极难控制。针对这一难题,提出了包含煤柱小角度锚固法和十字护顶方法的留小煤柱沿空护巷技术,有效解决了煤柱易沿顶底板剪切破坏并向巷内搓动的问题,降低了巷道软弱围岩的破碎程度和变形量。现场试验结果显示,留设小煤柱的完整性保持较好,其中相较于原支护方式顶底板移近量减少了40%,两帮收敛量则减少了42%,巷道围岩变形得到了有效控制。与此同时,还得到工作面前后方回采巷道的矿压显现呈现明显的6个分区,分别为工作面前方无影响区、工作面前方矿压显现影响区、工作面前方矿压显现强烈区、工作面后方顶板激烈活动区、工作面后方顶板活动减缓区和工作面后方基本稳定区。其中,工作面前方矿压显现强烈区和工作面后方顶板活动激烈区的范围明显大于缓斜近水平煤层,这为分区制定围岩控制措施提供了有利依据。所得研究成果可为我国急倾斜走向长壁俯伪斜工作面沿空护巷技术研究提供一定的补充。     

考虑侧向变形的各向异性砂土土压力试验研究

 基于各向异性砂土在不同常应变增量比条件下的应变路径试验研究土压力系数与侧向应变约束条件之间的密切关系,并且进行各向异性砂土的土压力离心模型试验,验证材料试验的规律,分析比较大主应力与沉积面夹角不同时填土的土压力及位移场随挡墙位移变化规律的异同。研究结果表明,大主应力分别垂直和平行于沉积面的2种情况下,K0状态附近的滑动区域差别较小,土压力大小差别较小。随着挡墙位移的增大,2种情况下填土形成的滑楔体大小和土压力大小的差异明显增大,大主应力垂直于沉积面时填土中形成的滑楔体尺寸较小,土压力也相对较小。试验结果表明,与各向同性的情形相比,各向异性使静止状态的土压力增大,对极限状态影响较小,表明压缩变形各向异性明显比强度各向异性影响要大。     

密实充填矿压显现时空演化规律研究

建立和分析密实充填矿压显现时空演化力学模型,运用相似材料模拟方法研究充填开采条件下的采场矿压显现时空演化规律,并以邢台某矿充填实践为工程实例进行分析验证。研究结果表明:顶板下沉活跃期间,充填体受力与充填步距和推进时间呈正相关;在充填开采物理模拟中,顶板测点应力普遍经历了应力升高–急剧卸压–缓慢升压再到稳定的过程,且工作面前方顶板应力峰值和煤柱受力随着充填步距的增加而增大;充填体受力随着工作面推进而不断增加至趋于稳定,稳定后的顶板应力和充填体受力均小于原岩应力;停采后静置阶段,随着时间增长,充填区顶板依然存在缓慢下沉现象。某矿充填实测结果显示距离切眼15和40 m处的充填体压力为3.5和5.5 MPa,且顶板下沉和覆岩离层在工作面推进过程中均随着充填距离的增加和充填时间的推移表现出了规律性变化。     

浅埋近距离房式煤柱下采动应力演化及致灾机制

浅埋近距离房式煤柱下长壁工作面回采将受到上煤层采空区遗留煤柱和本煤层工作面动压的共同影响。针对石圪台矿3–1–2煤层工作面顶板压力大、支架被压死等问题,采用理论分析、数值模拟及现场试验等方法,探讨采动应力演化规律及压架致灾机制。研究结果表明,与莫尔–库仑准则相比,应变软化准则能够准确地反映上层遗留房式煤柱在下层长壁工作面采动应力影响下的变形破坏机制;当上层遗留煤柱较完整,下煤层工作面位于煤柱下方时,受煤柱应力集中及采动影响,下煤层工作面顶板沿煤柱边缘直接切落,载荷集中造成支架压死。通过采前或回采过程中爆破上层遗留煤柱,将顶板压力转移到工作面前方煤岩体内,有效减小工作面围岩应力集中,保证下煤层工作面安全开采。     

采空区煤柱-顶板系统失稳的力学分析

基于温克尔假设,突破把坚硬顶板视为弹性梁的传统思想,把坚硬顶板视为弹性板,将煤柱等效为连续均匀分布的支撑弹簧,从而形成煤柱-顶板相互作用系统;同时,将煤柱视为应变软化介质,采用近似的Weibull分布描述它的损伤本构模型,依据板壳理论和非线性动力学理论对采空区煤柱-顶板系统失稳机理进行了研究,得出了系统失稳的突变机制,并给出了系统失稳的数学判据和力学条件;最后,以马脊梁矿为工程实例进行分析。结果表明,理论分析值与工程实测数据吻合较好,为进一步研究煤柱-顶板相互作用系统和制定相关规范提供了重要参考。     

大红山铜矿二期采矿工艺及点柱的应用

介绍了大红山铜矿二期工程的分段空场嗣后尾砂充填采矿工艺。针对该矿在上下两层矿体开采过程中的下层开采矿体时,两层矿体盘区间的夹层失稳垮塌的危险大大增加的问题,使用三维有限单元法进行了数值分析与结果表明,下层矿体开采时,在盘区中部留设点柱,可使上下两盘区隔层中的拉应力数值显著降低,隔层稳定性显著提高。实际生产中,采取留设点柱的措施后,采场顶板垮塌问题得到有效控制,贫化率和损失率均显著降低。取得了以较低的代价,获得较高经济效益的成果。对矿体厚度和面积均较大的盘区,矿柱强度随其高度-厚度比的升高而下降,因此,采取了在盘区内部留设面积相对较大、供矿末期才爆破的临时矿柱,保障了主要供矿期间隔层的稳定性。     

Innovation and future of mining rock mechanics

The 121 mining method of longwall mining first proposed in England has been widely used around the world.This method requires excavation of two mining roadways and reservation of one coal pillar to mine one working face.Due to considerable excavation of roadway,the mining roadway is generally destroyed during coal mining.The stress concentration in the coal pillar can cause large deformation of surrounding rocks,rockbursts and other disasters,and subsequently a large volume of coal pillar resources will be wasted.To improve the coal recovery rate and reduce excavation of the mining roadway,the 111 mining method of longwall mining was proposed in the former Soviet Union based on the 121 mining method.The 111 mining method requires excavation of one mining roadway and setting one filling body to replace the coal pillar while maintaining another mining roadway to mine one working face.However,because the stress transfer structure of roadway and working face roof has not changed,the problem of stress concentration in the surrounding rocks of roadway has not been well solved.To solve the above problems,the conventional concept utilizing high-strength support to resist the mining pressure for the 121 and 111 mining methods should be updated.The idea is to utilize mining pressure and expansion characteristics of the collapsed rock mass in the goaf to automatically form roadways,avoiding roadway excavation and waste of coal pillar.Based on the basic principles of mining rock mechanics,the“equilibrium mining”theory and the“short cantilever beam”mechanical model are proposed.Key technologies,such as roof directional presplitting technology,negative Poisson’s ratio(NPR)high-prestress constant-resistance support technology,and gangue blocking support technology,are developed following the“equilibrium mining”theory.Accordingly,the 110 and N00 mining methods of an automatically formed roadway(AFR)by roof cutting and pressure releasing without pillars are proposed.The mining methods have been applied to a large number of coal mines with different overburdens,coal seam thicknesses,roof types and gases in China,realizing the integrated mode of coal mining and roadway retaining.On this basis,in view of the complex geological conditions and intelligent mining demand of coal mines,an intelligent and unmanned development direction of the“equilibrium mining”method is prospected.     

煤柱应力应变分布的光纤监测试验研究

为科学留设区段煤柱,基于光纤传感监测技术,从煤柱内部应力应变角度研究煤柱的合理尺寸及其稳定性。制作平面物理相似材料模型,通过3个工作面开挖形成2个区段煤柱,在煤柱内分别埋设5个光纤Bragg光栅传感器及分布式传感光纤,同时,在模型底板铺设60个压力传感器,监测煤柱内部应力应变变化。试验表明,煤柱内部垂直应变随工作面推进而增大,水平应变随工作面推进呈“马鞍形”分布;煤柱的破裂区宽度约为3～5 m,塑性区宽度约为5～8 m,弹性区宽度约为22～27 m;1^#区段煤柱和2^#区段煤柱一侧开采时,对应的应力集中系数分别为1.54和2.04;两侧均为采空区时,应力集中系数分别为1.99和2.18。光纤光栅监测结果揭示了煤柱内部应力应变规律,为煤柱稳定性实时监测提供了科学手段。     

考虑中间主应力的非饱和土上埋式涵洞竖向土压力公式

基于非饱和土的平面应变抗剪强度公式,考虑中间主应力和基质吸力的共同影响,分别建立了均匀与线性2种吸力分布下非饱和土上埋式涵洞的竖向土压力公式,并对其进行可比性分析,对比文献数值模拟和模型试验进行正确性验证,最后探讨了各参数的影响特性。研究结果表明:所建立的上埋式涵洞竖向土压力公式为系列化的有序解析解,可退化为文献已有解答并包含众多新解答,并能计算涵顶上方不同高度处的竖向土压力,工程应用前景广泛; 基质吸力对涵顶竖向土压力具有重要影响,且线性吸力影响不如均布吸力明显,应考虑回填土的非饱和特性并实测吸力分布; 中间主应力效应随基质吸力和填土高度的增大而更加显著,同时均布吸力下中间主应力效应较明显,应合理选取强度准则以反映回填土强度的中间主应力作用; 等沉面高度与回填土物理力学性质、中间主应力效应、基质吸力及分布形式等有关; 基质吸力及其分布影响、中间主应力效应均与填土高度密切相关,体现了多因素对涵顶竖向土压力的综合影响。     

阶段嗣后充填开采采场稳定性相似材料模型试验

根据司家营铁矿南区充填法开采设计,选取南区S16勘探线附近的采场,采用相似材料模型试验的研究方法,模拟了首采-450 m中段单盘的两步开采和充填过程,借助位移计、光纤传感器和压力盒等仪器监测了试验模型的地表沉降和围岩的变形及应力分布,分析了采场变形和应力变化规律及充填体的稳定性。试验结果表明,阶段嗣后充填法开采对地表影响不大,充填可以有效控制地表岩移;开采过程中采场整体稳定性较好,但二步回采后采场顶板和间柱变形均发生较大变化,回采后应及时对阶段空场进行充填,并适当提高充填体的强度。最终成果为开展多中段多盘区的矿体开采的进一步研究提供了基础依据。     

Stability problems associated with an abandoned ironstone mine

The stability problems associated with a shallow, room and pillar ironstone mine have been analysed in detail using established, empirical approaches. Initial analysis centred on elastic beam theory and pillar strength formulae to establish the factor of safety against roof beam and pillar failure, respectively. The pillars have been shown to be inherently stable; even those that have been subsequently reduced in size as a result of pillar splitting have safety factors in excess of 3. The roof has been shown to be unstable using an elastic beam analogy, which is corroborated by the extensive surface damage. Confidence in the application of such approaches is shown to be difficult due to the lack of knowledge relating to the effects of time on mine stability; increased weathering of the mine structures may lead to weakening and ultimately failure at lower stresses than determined through the mine design approaches. Clearer definition of the rock mass behaviour is required in order to advance such techniques as valid approaches for the analysis of abandoned mines. However, the paper also highlights how such approaches are valid where failure mechanisms are well defined and understood. Probabilistic risk analysis has also been considered as an alternative approach. From a surface developer's perspective, such approaches are more useful. Electronic Publication     

The 1873 collapse of the Saint-Maximilien panel at the Varangeville salt mine

The 1873 panel collapse at the Varangéville salt mine (Lorraine, France) is described. Post-accident reports, as well as the experience drawn from neighbouring panels and mines, proved that pillars punched the marly layers on which they rested—a unique failure mechanism in the history of salt mines. The database on rock mechanical behaviour is relatively small, but it allows proposing credible values of the two most important mechanical parameters: floor cohesion and roof stiffness. Numerical computations confirm that the central pillar, despite its large horizontal dimensions, punched the floor and that large strains may have localized in the rock mass above the panel edge, allowing large-scale deformation of the roof and catastrophic evolution of pillar punching.     

大断面强采动综放煤巷顶板非对称破坏机制与控制对策

 针对大断面强采动综放煤巷开掘过程中出现的顶板非对称变形破坏现象,以王家岭煤矿为工程背景,通过现场调研、室内试验、理论分析、数值模拟和井下试验等手段,对变形破坏机制与控制对策进行研究。得出如下结论：(1) 综放煤巷顶板呈现非对称变形破坏特征,表现为煤柱侧顶板严重下沉、剧烈水平滑移变形及肩角部位顶板错位、嵌入、台阶下沉等;(2) 侧向基本顶于煤柱上方距采空区边缘6～7 m处发生破断,基本顶的破断和回转下沉运动引起的不均衡支承压力q和回转变形压力?是沿空巷道不对称变形破坏的根本力源,靠煤柱侧顶板及肩角部位是巷道变形破坏的关键部位;(3) 受采空区不稳定覆岩运动和巷道开挖影响,巷道围岩结构和应力分布以巷道中心线为轴呈非对称性分布,而原有支护未能对煤柱侧顶板及肩角等部位加强支护且无法适应顶板剧烈水平运动,巷道掘出后呈现出非对称矿压显现,后期受到本工作面回采影响,非对称变形破坏进一步加剧。(4) 分析该类巷道支护原理,提出集高强锚梁网、非对称锚梁桁架结构、预应力锚索桁架的非对称控制体系,阐述其控制机制,并进行方案设计和工程应用。数值模拟和工程实践表明,该技术可有效减弱顶板应力和位移分布的非对称性,控制围岩非对称变形破坏。     

Staggered development of a thick coal seam for full height working in a single lift by the blasting gallery method

In line with the Coal Mines Regulations (CMR) of India, superimposed development was made along the floor for full height extraction of a thick coal seam (which had already been developed leaving pillars along the roof) in a single lift by the blasting gallery (BG) method. Depillaring of the seam induced roof failure at roadway junctions in the bottom section near the goaf edge during a major roof fall. Dilution by paring between the two close developments caused a considerable drop in width/height (w/h) ratio of the pillars, resulting in poor strength and stiffness of the natural support at the goaf edge. The presence of strong and massive overlying roof strata caused high values of the mining induced stress over the pillars facing the goaf line during the depillaring. Ultimately, the pillar extraction caused collapse ahead of the face.Based on simple ideas and the results of laboratory investigations on simulated models, conventional superimposed development of the thick seam was replaced by a staggered one for the depillaring and underwinning of the roof coal by the BG method. The field performance of this was monitored during a field trial. Extraction of a 10.5 m thick seam in a single lift by the BG method with staggered bottom section development did not cause any strata control problem, even during the major roof fall.Thus, this paper describes the philosophy of staggered development of a thick coal seam, which has already been developed along the roof horizon, for single lift working, together with the results of the laboratory and field investigations.     

Numerical analysis of consolidation behavior of soil-bentonite backfill in a full-scale slurry trench cutoff wall test

The stress state of the SB backfill in a full-scale cutoff wall test during the construction and consolidation was simulated by a finite-element model. The applicability of the model was demonstrated by good agreements between modeled and field monitored earth pressures and pore pressure in the backfill. Based on the analyzed results, the backfill consolidation process can be described as a four-staged cycle of load transfer: (1) the effective stress of the backfill increases due to the dissipation of excess pore pressure caused by self-weight consolidation of the backfill; (2) the increased effective stress results in settlement of the backfill and an increase of sidewall friction between the backfill and the sidewall interface; (3) the increased sidewall friction results in the transfer of backfill weight to the sidewalls and a decrease of the consolidation stress on the backfill; and (4) the decreased consolidation stress attenuates the decrease of excess pore pressure, influencing the subsequent consolidation. The cycle from (1) to (4) continues until the consolidation is completed.     

下向分层胶结充填采场失稳机理及顶板垮塌模式研究

以某矿下向分层胶结充填法采场发生大面积失稳事故为工程背景,通过分析地表及井下工程破坏情况得出采场顶板发生了“下部充填体散体冒落+上部充填体及覆岩整体陷落”的复合垮塌模式,并进行了理论计算验证。数值模拟研究结果表明,随着采场中采空进路数量的增加,各间柱上的垂向压力不断叠加,若有一个间柱因承压达到极限而失稳,压力便向周边间柱转移导致其他间柱失稳,进而引发“多米诺效应”式的间柱连锁失稳现象,空区顶板在拉应力作用下发生散块冒落,空区边缘部位在集中剪应力作用下发生整体剪切滑落,最终发生直通地表的大规模垮塌事件。结合矿山实际生产问题,提出了一系列采场失稳风险防控措施,可为类似矿山提供借鉴。     

Use of Compressible Expanded Polystyrene Blocks and Geogrids for Retaining Wall Structures

The use of a compressible layer such as expanded polystyrene blocks behind a rigid retaining wall and geogrid layers embedded in a dense granular backfill is examined as a reinforcement technique for retaining wall structures. The mobile model retaining walls adjacent to reinforced model specimens are subjected to different surcharge pressures, and are caused to move laterally to measure the lateral earth pressure during the wall movement. The coefficients of earth pressure at rest and active earth pressure are carefully inferred from test results. Three series of tests are conducted; one test series with expanded polystyrene blocks installed behind the wall, another with geogrid layers embedded within model specimens, and the last series with expanded polystyrene blocks installed behind the wall and geogrid layers fixed between two adjacent expanded polystyrene blocks and embedded within model specimens. The reductions in the earth pressure at rest and the active earth pressure due to various patterns of reinforcement are interpreted in relation to the concept of controlled yielding of compressible expanded polystyrene blocks, tensile strains induced along geogrid layers, fixity between expanded polystyrene blocks and geogrid layers, and a facing unit consisting of expanded polystyrene blocks.