走向良性运行的水经济——以色列管水用水经验

以色列是一个干旱、严重缺水的国家,水是其生存的国脉所系。以色列民族创造了沙漠绿洲、沙漠硅谷,而他们的水经济也同样令世人瞩目。介绍以色列水资源立法的政策法规和行之有效的水资源管理体制,阐述了水资源价格体系,以及水资源淡化工程的做法。     

Dividing the Waters of the River Jordan: An Analysis of the 1994 Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty

Following a long period of war-like conditions Israel and Jordan signed a Peace Treaty in October 1994. As part of this treaty the two countries agreed to settle their differences with regard to the claims they had to the waters of the Jordan basin. The result is that Israel is to keep all the waters of the upper Jordan basin, totalling approximately 600 mcm per annum. In the lower part of the basin Jordan is granted a small share of the waters from the mainstream, together with a more sizeable proportion of the flow of the Yarmouk. The volume of water which Jordan will now have access to is considerably less than the water allocations of the Johnston Plan of the 1950s, which was an independent attempt to divide the waters of the River Jordan in an equitable manner. On the other hand Israel's share is considerably greater. Overall, the treaty seems to be particularly favourable for Israel.     

Modelling Sectorally Differentiated Water Prices - Water Preservation and Welfare Gains Through Price Reform?

This study simulates the economy-wide effects of introducing new water pricing systems in Israel. A Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model, STAGE_W, is used that includes multiple water commodities produced from different water resources. The current water pricing scheme supplies potable water to municipalities at fees above the supply costs and subsidizes water delivered to the agricultural and the manufacturing sectors. Due to limited freshwater resources, climate change and population growth, water scarcity is an increasing problem in Israel. Therefore, pricing systems which lead to a more efficient allocation of water are intensely debated. This study analyzes two alternative pricing schemes under discussion in Israel: price liberalization, which unifies the prices for all potable water consumers at cost recovery rates, and marginal pricing that lifts the potable water price to the cost of desalination. Both schemes reduce water demand with limited economic costs. Price liberalization is the more favourable option from a national welfare perspective, while marginal pricing allows for larger water savings and, in the long run, independence from fresh water resources.     

Towards a Middle East at peace: hidden issues in Arab–Israeli hydropolitics

When peace negotiations do one day resume between Israelis and Arabs, shared water resources will again take centre stage, acting both as an irritant between the parties, and as a tremendous inducement to reach agreement. The ‘hidden’ hydropolitical issues that will need to be resolved between Israel, Lebanon and Syria in the course of eventual boundary talks are considered. Two of these issues, the village of Ghajar and its relation to the Wazani Springs, and the possibility of groundwater flow from the Litani to the Jordan headwaters, change the fundamental understanding of the relationship between hydrologic and political claims, and could threaten the entire approach to water negotiations both between Israel and Syria and between Israel and Lebanon. Fortunately, other agreements within the basin can inform the path solutions here might take. The most critical step towards conflict resolution is separating the concepts of territorial sovereignty from water security. This can be done most effectively by offering joint management, monitoring and enforcement strategies, as well as encouraging greater transparency in water data across boundaries.     

Groundwater Resources and International Law in the Middle East Peace Process

Abstract

Next to issues of land, water resources are the major bone of contention in the peace negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Arabs. The objective of negotiations is de facto setting the clock back to the eve of the Israel War of Independence, when the Jews accepted the 1947 UN resolution of partition, while the Arabs rejected it. The Arabs now accept the principle of territorial partition, but at the same time, they demand re-apportioning of resources, mainly of water. The Palestinians contend that the facts created on the ground unilaterally by Israel during the last 50 years, namely the agricultural development and the high water consumption by the Israeli urban sector, leave them without resources necessary for their development as a modern society. Per capita annual renewable freshwater resources in the region is among the lowest in the world. Approximately 600 million m³, or about one-third of the regional fresh groundwater consumption, is annually abstracted from aquifer systems recharged at the uplands of the Upper Cretaceous partly karstified carbonate formations of Judea and Samaria, terrenes often referred to as the West Bank. Israel and the Israeli agricultural settlements established within Judea and Samaria use 495 million m³/year (or 82.5 percent) of the abstracted water, leaving to the Palestinians the remaining 105 million m³/year. Thus, while the recharge zone to the Judean and Samarian aquifer systems are within the territories with an overwhelmingly Palestinian majority, most of the discharge occurs through water wells within the Israeli administration. The situation is reversed in the Gaza Strip, where Israel allows underflow of only 7 million m³/year of groundwater across the border, a less than 10 percent contribution to the nearly 80 million m³/year overdrawn water budget of the area. The issue of water is complicated by glaringly wide disparity in per capita water consumption between the two nations. While lines on the ground may separate two nations with conflicting territorial ambitions, apportioning of groundwater between Israel and the future Palestinian State proves to be one of the most intractable issues in the Middle East Peace Process. Moreover, neither international nor domestic law provides an adequate answer to questions of ownership or rights.     

Irrigation scheduling — Theoretical approach and application problems

The paper presents a theoretical approach to on-farm irrigation scheduling and discusses the problems of its real-life application to cotton farms in Israel. The theoretical approach is based on a loop of Linear Programming and Dynamic Programming problems which sequentially generate new irrigation schedules for the farm's crops in response to shadow prices of water.The major problems in the real-life application of this approach are (i) the lack of generally accepted estimates of cotton response to soil moisture, and (ii) the difficulty in adapting the LP results expressed in terms of continuous variables to the actual field layout and irrigation equipment of the farms. These problems are discussed and solutions are suggested and evaluated.The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, P.O. Box 12, Rehovot, Israel.     

Kinneret watershed analysis tool: a cell-based decision tree model for watershed flow and pollutants predictions.

This paper presents the methodology and application underlying the Kinneret Watershed Analysis Tool (KWAT), developed for flow and contaminant predictions for Lake Kinneret (the Sea of Galilee) watershed located in northern Israel. Lake Kinneret watershed is about 2730 km2 (2,070 in Israel, the rest in Lebanon), inhabited by about 200,000 people organized in 25 municipalities, and three cities (the Israeli part). The model aims to predict flow and contaminant transports within the watershed, down to its outlet-Lake Kinneret, the most important surface water resource in Israel. The model is comprised of two sections: quantity and quality. The objective of the quantity section is to tune the values of a vector of coefficients alpha that multiply the average rainfall time series intensity I(t) (the input) imposed on given sub-sets (i.e., cells) of the basin so as to calibrate their outlet flows Q(t); the quality section then uses these optimal flows Q(t) and the effective optimal rainfall intensities to adjust the values of a vector of coefficients beta so as to calibrate the sub-watersheds outlet concentrations C(t). The model uses decision trees coupled with a genetic algorithm for optimally tuning the KWAT coefficients for each of the watershed cells, which taken together comprise the flow and contamination amounts measured at the watershed outlet.     

Real and Ideal Institutional Frameworks for Managing the Common Arab-Israeli Water Resources

The Oslo A and B agreements of September 1993 and September 1995 were the beginning of a process aimed at a peaceful resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict. The Israeli-Jordanian Treaty of 1994 addresses issues of water sharing between the two parties. In 1995, Israel and the Palestinians signed an Agreement on Water and Sewage as part of their Interim Agreement. In February 1996, Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinians agreed to a “Declaration of Principles for Joint Development of Water Resources.” The purpose of this paper is to compare the components of the two Agreements with an “ideal” institution for management of shared water resources. The “ideal” institution was formulated by 23 water experts who were interviewed on this issue. The main finding is that in most respects, expert opinions did not differ significantly from the Israeli-Jordanian Treaty of Peace and the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement.     

Techno-political Water and Energy Development Alternatives in the Dead Sea and Aqaba Regions

Water and energy will be key elements in any regional development schemes in arid regions, being the limiting factors for planned tourism/resorts, industry and commerce. Two regions may be particularly attractive for regional economic development planning: the Dead Sea region , including the territory of Israel, Palestine and Jordan; and the Aqaba/Eilat area, which includes Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. These two regions could act as showcases of cooperation between the countries of the M iddle East. This study describes both technical and political priorities for water and energy development projects, in cluding non-conventional alternatives, particularly proposed hydro-solar an d seawater pumped-storage schemes with hydropowered reverse osmosis (RO ). Technical and political im plications of these projects are examined in a framework of inter-state regional economic cooperation.     

以色列节水技术与水资源管理利用考察及认识

本文介绍了以色列农业节水技术和水资源管理方面的先进经验，并就山西节水灌溉的发展和水资源的管理利用提出了两点意见。     

Technopolitical Alternative Strategies in Interstate Regional Development of the Jordan Rift Valley Beyond the Peace

ABSTRACT

The Jordan Valley, including the two interstate regions of the Dead Sea and Aqaba, is the focus of international cooperation and economic development for peace and confidence building in the aftermath of the ‘Declaration of Principles” between. Israel and the PLO on September 13, 1993, and the “Treaty of Peace” between Jordan and Israel on October 26, 1994. Technopolitical strategic alternatives with application of membrane separation technology such as RO desalination are proposed. These alternatives include two schemes: (i) the lower Jordan Peace Drainage Canal, and (ii) Aqaba hybrid seawater pumped-storage for cogeneration. Assessment of the technopolitical alternatives aims at sharing the resources and benefits among the riparian states, taking into account incentives for ecopolitical decision making, interstate regional economic development, and the will to cooperate for peace.     

Eco-political Decision Making and Techno-political Alternative Strategies in the Inter-state Development of the Jordan Valley and Dead Sea Beyond the Peace

The interstate region of the Jordan Valley and Dead Sea is the focus of international cooperation and regional economic development for peace and confidence building in the aftermath of the 'Declaration of Principles' between Israel and the PL O in September 1993, and the 'Treaty of Peace' between Jordan and Israel in October 1994. Eco-political decision making, which would sustain water development and water ecology in a framework of peaceful cooperation, is elaborated in this study with some techno-political strategic alternatives to combine the 'M D S Canal for co-generation with application of hydropowered seawater RO desalination' and 'the lower Jordan Peace Drainage Canal with brackish RO desalination'. This study suggests the priorities in the assessment of techno-political altern atives to share the resou rces and benefit among the riparian states, taking into account the incentives for eco-political decision making, inter-state regional economic development, and the will for peaceful cooperation.     

Knowledge creation in the water sector: towards a learning water organization

In this paper, some light is shed on approaches to the creation and re‐construction of water knowledge and the means to co‐create a water learning organization. In the water sector, one of the fundamental challenges in knowledge creation is that organizational information and knowledge do not match the external complexity. A model of knowledge creation is presented which shows how institutional knowledge can be created in water management. It is concluded that water knowledge is created through developing a process of transforming water tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge. The knowledge creation is realized through a process of socialization. A case study on private–public partnership in Amman City is presented.     

The Jordan River Basin: 2. Potential Future Allocations to the Co-riparians

Abstract

The Jordan River drains parts of four States and one territory (Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Jordan and Palestine), and is an important regional source of water. A previous paper in this series discussed the flow allocations from the Jordan River to the co-riparians which were proposed in the Johnston Plan of 1955, noting that recently declassified documents shed new light on the allocation proposed for Israel. The present paper discusses potential future allocations of water from the Jordan River basin to the co-riparians, providing alternative methods of calculating these using basic principles which are considered to generally reflect customary international water law. It is concluded that whilst certain of the downstream co-riparians are undoubtedly “water-stressed” an acceptable solution to the allocation of water within the region is attainable. However, this will depend on coupling the allocation of the existing resources to the strategic development of additional fresh water resources in the region, which will also encourage the joint management of the resulting system.     

Fossil groundwater resources as a basis for arid zone development?

Fossil groundwater aquifers underlie many arid regions. This article is concerned with the economic viability of this resource as a long‐term basis for the development of arid regions. The problem is analysed within the framework of natural resource economics, emphasizing aspects which are typical to the development of fossil groundwater aquifers. The case of the aquifer underlying the Arava valley in Israel is studied in depth.     

生物坝护岸造田与效益分析

昔日一年一场风，从春刮到冬，白天点油灯，夜晚土堵门的不毛之地，如今变成绿染山川、碧波清风的“塞上绿洲”，已成为晋西北地区的生态旅游胜地。这便是生物坝工程对治理水土流失、改变生态环境的贡献。经多年对右玉县生物坝工程观测和调查，分析了其原理及效益，对流域沿岸及支流合理的造田营造方式做出了评价。     

龙滩水电厂机组技术供水正(反)向控制系统改造

龙滩水电站水轮发电机组为世界上最大的全空冷式机组,发电机额定容量为778 MVA.为了保证机组技术供水水源的可靠和各轴承冷却器设备的工作安全稳定,技术供水设计成能正/反向切换的运行方式,由4个以色列生产的能正/反向切换的电控开关阀控制.对机组初期运行中出现的问题以及不能正/反向切换的原因进行分析,并改进了控制流程,实现了阀门正确的控制.     

Changing the nature of transboundary water agreements: the Israeli–Palestinian case

This abridged version of the proposal developed for Friends of the Earth Middle East presents the design for an agreement between Israelis and Palestinians to share water in a physically realistic, ecologically sustainable and socially equitable manner. Existing arrangements are, at best, inadequate and, in some cases, counterproductive. The proposal relies upon ongoing monitoring and mediation to achieve equitable and sustainable use. It presents why and how an agreement on water can be reached now, before resolving the full range of issues required in a Final Status Agreement between Israel and Palestine.     

Water Balance of the Upper Jordan River Basin

Sharing water in the Jordan basin has been a key topic in the recent peace talks between Israel and its neighbors. Knowing the quantity of water available is a prerequisite to water sharing. Many different values have been published in recent years. Different sources report Jordan's discharge flow into Lake Kinneret anywhere from 460 to 800 Mm³/year. The aim of this article is to present a water balance for the Jordan basin for a 15-year period. The years 1977–1978 to 1991–1992 were studied for the basin's water budget, as they represent the present day (1998) land use. The results show that Lake Kinneret has a yearly average input (= output) of 770 Mm³. Israel uses some 800 Mcm³/year from the entire Jordan basin, of which 440 Mm³ is used within the basin and the rest outside. There is about 100 Mm³ for future utilization in the watershed. The yearly Jordan's discharge to the Dead Sea is 220–250 Mm³. Reporting by various secondary data sources is compared to primary data findings to illustrate the great variability of data reporting and to provide annual flow estimates, based largely on primary sources, for the Upper Jordan River.