Irrigation water requirement models of some major crops

A case study of the Mahanadi-Kathjori-Devi delta of Orissa, India was undertaken for the formulation of irrigation water requirement models of some major crops. Principal crops such as paddy (both during the Kharif and Rabi Seasons), sugarcane, jute, chilly, mustard, groundnuts, etc., which are mostly grown in the delta, were taken into account for the present study. Effective rainfall and irrigation water requirements are the two basic parameters of the developed models. The models help in predicting irrigation water requirements for different crops once the values of effective rainfalls are ascertained. This irrigation water requirement, estimated by models so developed, includes water requirements for consumptive use only and when any other water used for special requirements such as leaching, seed bed preparation, etc., is added to it, the total irrigation water requirement is determined. The models so developed can be used for the same crops grown in other areas having the same hydrometeorological characteristics.     

SIMETAW# - a Model for Agricultural Water Demand Planning

A successful water management scheme for irrigated crops requires an integrated approach, which accounts for water, soil, and crop management. SIMETAW# is a user friendly soil water balance model that assesses crop water use, irrigation requirements, and generates hypothetical irrigation schedules for a wide range of crops experiencing full or deficit irrigation. SIMETAW# calculates reference evapotranspiration (ET_o), and it computes potential crop evapotranspiration (ET_c), and the evapotranspiration of applied water (ET_aw), which is the amount of irrigation water needed to match losses from the effective soil root zone due to ET_c that are not replaced by precipitation and other sources. Using input information on crop and soil characteristics and the distribution uniformity of infiltrated irrigation applications in full or deficit conditions, the model estimates the mean depth of infiltrated water (IW) into each quarter of the field. The impact of deficit irrigation on the actual crop evapotranspiration (ET_a) is computed separately for each of the four quarters of the cropped field. SIMETAW# simulation adjusts ET_o estimates for projected future CO₂ concentration, and hence the model can assess climate change impacts on future irrigation demand allowing the user to propose adaptation strategies that potentially lead to a more sustainable water use. This paper discusses the SIMETAW# model and evaluates its performance on estimating ET_c, ET_a, and ET_aw for three case studies.     

作物需水量与灌溉制度模拟

从作物需水量的基本概念出发，以水量平衡原理为基础，建立了模拟农田根层土壤水循环的计算机模型-ISAREG.这一模型具有多种功能，可模拟根层土壤水分变化，评价给定的灌溉制度，计算作物需水量和灌溉需水量，也可用以制订多种供水限制条件下的优化灌溉制度．用望都灌溉试验站的小麦、玉米、棉花3种作物两年的试验观测资料对上述模型进行了验证．     

Hydrological Response to Agricultural Land Use Heterogeneity Using Variable Infiltration Capacity Model

Hydrological responses corresponding to the agricultural land use alterations are critical for planning crop management strategies, water resources management, and environmental evaluations. However, accurate estimation and evaluation of these hydrological responses are restricted by the limited availability of detailed crop classification in land use and land cover. An innovative approach using state-of-the-art Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) model is utilized by setting up the crop-specific vegetation parameterization and analyse the effect of uniform and heterogeneous agricultural land use over the hydrological responses of the basin, in the Kangsabati River Basin (KRB). Thirteen year simulations (1998–2010) based on two different scenarios i.e., single-crop in agricultural land use (SC-ALU) and multi-crop in agricultural land use (MC-ALU) patterns are incorporated in the model and calibrated (1998–2006) and validated (2007–2010) for the streamflow at Reservoir and Mohanpur in the KRB. The results demonstrated that the VIC model improved the estimates of hydrological components, especially surface runoff and evapotranspiration (ET) at daily and monthly timescales corresponding to MC-ALU than SC-ALU (NSC?>?0.7). Grid-scale ET estimates are improved after incorporating heterogeneous agricultural land use (NSC?>?0.55 and R²?>?0.55) throughout the period of 1998–2010. This study improves our understanding on how the change in agricultural land use in the model settings alters the basin hydrological characteristics, and to provide model-based approaches for best management practices in irrigation scheduling, crop water requirement, and management strategies in the absence of flux towers, eddy covariance, and lysimeters in the basin.

     

Use of average data of 181 synoptic stations for estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration by temperature-based methods

Evapotranspiration has a highlighted role in agricultural and forest meteorology researches, hydrological cycle, irrigation scheduling, and water resources management. There are many models to estimate the evapotranspiration including mass transfer, radiation, temperature, and pan evaporation-based models. This study aims to compare temperature-based models to detect the best model under different weather conditions. For this purpose, weather data were gathered from 181 synoptic stations in 31 provinces of Iran. The evapotranspiration was estimated using 11 temperature-based models and was compared with the FAO Penman-Monteith model. The results showed that the Modified Hargreaves-Samani models estimate the evapotranspiration better than other models in the most provinces of Iran (25 provinces). However, the values of R² were less than 0.98 for 15 provinces of Iran. Therefore, the models were calibrated and preciseness of estimation was increased. However, the estimation was improved only in 14 provinces. The new temperature-based models estimated the evapotranspiration in the eastern (RK, NK, SB, and KE) provinces of Iran (with a various temperature range 14–20 °C) better than other provinces. The best precise methods were the Modified Hargreaves-Samani 1 method for AL (before calibration) and the Modified Hargreaves-Samani 3 method for KE (after calibration). Finally, a list of the best performance of each model has been presented to use other regions and next researches according to values of mean, maximum, and minimum temperature, elevation, minimum and mean relative humidity, sunshine, precipitation, and wind speed. The results are also useful for selecting the best model when we must apply temperature-based models because of type of available data.     

黄河下游灌区农田灌溉制度与供需平衡分析

在簸箕李引黄灌区上游和下游选择典型试验区，开展了连续两年的冬小麦一夏玉米连作种植模式下的田间试验观测，用模拟灌溉制度的计算机模型ISAREG对各试验处理进行模拟，验证了模型的模拟精度。依据模拟结果对现行灌溉制度进行了评价。模拟对比了灌区内3个县4个不同干旱程度典型年气候条件下10种主要作物的两种灌溉制度方案，包括充分灌溉和部分非充分灌溉方案，计算了不同方案的田间灌溉需水过程，分析了不同方案下灌区水资源供需平衡状况。研究表明，簸箕李灌区只有采用改进的田间灌水技术和有控制的非充分灌溉制度，才能使灌区供水和需水在平水年基本达到平衡。     

Simulation supported scenario analysis for water resources planning: a case study in northern Italy.

The work presents the results of a comprehensive modelling study of surface and groundwater resources in the Muzza-Bassa Lodigiana irrigation district, in Northern Italy. It assesses the impact of changes in land use and irrigation water availability on the distribution of crop water consumption in space and time, as well as on the groundwater resources. A distributed, integrated surface water-groundwater simulation system was implemented and applied to the study area. The system is based on the coupling of a conceptual vadose zone model with the groundwater model MODFLOW. To assess the impact of land use and irrigation water availability on water deficit for crops as well as on groundwater system in the area, a number of management scenarios were identified and compared with a base scenario, reflecting the present conditions. Changes in land use may alter significantly both total crop water requirement and aquifer recharge. Water supply is sufficient to meet demand under present conditions and, from the crop water use viewpoint, a reduction of water availability has a positive effect on the overall irrigation system efficiency; however, evapotranspiration deficit increases, concentrated in July and August, when it may be critical for maize crops.     

鄱阳湖流域主要旱作物需水规律研究

应用大田试验和小型旱作物需水测坑相结合的方法,采用喷/滴灌、沟灌、不灌三种不同灌溉方式,针对鄱阳湖流域主要旱作物需水量变化规律进行研究,找出其缺水敏感期,为灌好关键水提供理论依据,同时分析其作物需水系数,提出不同灌溉方式下作物水分利用率.     

Hierarchical Fuzzy Systems Integrated with Particle Swarm Optimization for Daily Reference Evapotranspiration Prediction: a Novel Approach

Water Resources Management - Reference evapotranspiration (ET0) is a crucial element for deriving irrigation scheduling of major crops. Thus, precise projection of ET0 is essential for better...     

Are Weather Generators Robust Tools to Study Daily Reference Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Requirement?

Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is one of the driving forces in crop simulation models and is very important to be estimated accurately. Moreover, weather generator (WG) models are widely used in combination with these crop models. As the quality of model output is related to the quality of weather data used as input, the evaluation of the sensitivity of model outputs to the quality of generated weather data is essential. In this study, eight different weather generator models were assessed and their outputs were used to estimate daily reference evapotranspiration and irrigation requirement. Two daily weather generator algorithms were combined with a monthly weather generator and/or an adjustment algorithm for low-frequency variances. Precipitation occurrence series was generated by an independent semi-empirical distribution. The daily weather generators outperformed the monthly models in reproducing daily statistics, while the monthly models performed better in simulating the monthly and yearly variations. After analyzing the model performances in simulating climatic variables, more assessments were carried out on ETo and irrigation requirement. The results depicted the strength of all the models in simulating daily ETo and irrigation requirement. Although all the studied models have comparable performances in simulating these two daily variables on daily and monthly scales, the monthly WGs outperform the daily models on yearly time scales and have better performances in simulating standard deviation values of yearly mean ETo and irrigation requirement. It can be concluded that WG models are robust tools for estimating these two daily variables if they can at least reproduce daily statistics (i.e. mean and standard deviation) well. But it must be taken in considerations that each WG model (including the one studied here) has different weaknesses and strengths and the best choice must be done according to the requirements.     

An Empirical Assessment of On-Farm Water Productivity using Groundwater in a Semi-Arid Indian Watershed

Realistic estimation of irrigation volume applied to any crop at farm level generally requires information on event based discharge rates and corresponding periods of irrigation application. Use of mean seasonal discharge rates leads to erroneous estimation of volume due to unaccounted seasonal fluctuations in the water table, upon which the discharge rate of tube well is dependent. In the absence of such information, an alternative approach of estimating farm level water application based upon water table fluctuation data has been adopted in this study. The total actual water extracted during each irrigation event from the watershed was distributed among the farms irrigating crops in proportion to the product of irrigation time and the pump capacity (h_p). Volume of water withdrawal concurrent to an irrigation event was computed based on the water level fluctuations in the wells in conjunction with potential recharge contribution from the surface storage structures to the groundwater aquifer. A production function approach was used to estimate the marginal productivity of water for selected crops at various stages of plant growth. Water, as an input in the production function, encompassed either in-situ soil moisture storage from rainfall or irrigation from groundwater or both. The inter-season as well as intra-season groundwater use, and the consequent groundwater withdrawals were analyzed based on the marginal value and output elasticity of water at different crop growth stages during the season. The cotton crop realized marginal value product of water, ranging from Rs. 1.03/m³ to Rs. 10.43/m³ at different crop growth stages in cotton. Castor crop had the marginal value product ranging from Rs. 2.89/m³ to Rs. 6.81/m³. The availability and use of water, including soil moisture, in the two seasons, coupled with the local harvest prices received, yielded the differential marginal values of water.     

基于多源遥感数据和水量平衡原理的灌溉用水量分析

农业灌溉水量估算和区域农业用水的校核是用水统计、监管的难点。现行基于典型调查和定额推算的方法依赖统计人员经验,易受人为因素干扰,准确性难以控制;采用基于水量平衡的灌溉用水推算方法时,区域蓄水变量和耗水量等要素仅依靠传统地面监测条件难以获取。遥感技术能够解决水量平衡方程中区域蓄水变量和蒸散发的估算问题,可以提高水量平衡方法在计算灌溉用水中应用的可行性,但大多数遥感产品存在区域适用性和精度的问题,需要将多种产品结合,通过相互校验和组合控制误差;此外,遥感产品与水量平衡要素之间还存在一定程度的概念差异,需要进行匹配与转换。本文构建了一种基于多源遥感数据和水量平衡原理的灌溉用水分析方法,利用区域水量平衡方程检验多源遥感数据的一致性和可靠性,建立遥感数据与水量平衡要素的对应关系,选取合理的区域蒸散发数据,再利用田间水量平衡将总蒸散发分解为降水蒸散发和灌溉蒸散发,推算得到灌溉耗水量和灌溉用水量的合理范围。应用本文提出的方法进行山东省济南市2012—2015年灌溉用水分析,并与济南市水资源公报统计的农业用水进行对比,结果表明:在降水量接近多年平均的2012、2013、2015年,二者结果较为接近;在干旱的2014年,本文的分析结果与公报结果相差较大。结合同期农田作物长势、区域地下水位变化分析,认为该年份存在较大的灌溉用水,本文结果比较合理。本文方法可为校核区域灌溉用水统计数据的合理性提供技术支撑。     

A multiobjective fuzzy linear programming model for sustainable integrated operation of a multireservoir system

Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer of water, with high significance in India as the majority of its people depend on it. Rainfall uncertainties, and uneven distribution of utilizable water over space and time, have presented a serious challenge to irrigation water management and crop production. Surface water reservoirs play a major role in supplying irrigation water and also addressing uneven water distribution to some degree. Varying water requirements for different crops under multiple canals, however, requires that planners develop an optimal crop planning for the efficient operation of a multireservoir irrigation system. The spatial and temporal water transfer within a multireservoir irrigation system necessitates integrated operation of all the involved reservoirs. Thus, integrated operation of a multireservoir system is a fundamental requirement for efficient irrigation water management, and also become a key issue for sustainable agricultural development. This study derived an optimal crop plan for the integrated operation of a complex multireservoir system with intrabasin water transfer, using a multiobjective fuzzy linear programming (MOFLP) approach. The MOFLP model resulted in a level of satisfaction of 0.46, with an irrigation intensity of 102.18%, and a total crop area of 149 232.10 ha. The optimal policies were furthermore assessed with various statistical indicators with a simulation model, indicating they are performing well, with high reliability and resilience for longer periods.     

一种基于根、冠相互作用机制设计灌溉方案的方法

根据根、冠间相互作用机制及其对土水环境响应特征，建立了以土壤水分为参变量的根、冠关系模拟调控模型，并基于常规及适应跟踪控制思想，给出了2种计算作物需水量、规划灌溉方案的方法. 作为例子，分别计算出了1992、1994两年冬小麦生长季内逐日1m土体应具备的水量，模拟值与实测值经统计相关检验，均达到了极显著水平.实验证明，两种方法可用来根据不同生产目标，制定农田灌溉方案。     

Multiple Linear Correlation Analysis of Daily Reference Evapotranspiration

An accurate estimation of reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) is of paramount importance for many studies such as hydrologic water balance, irrigation system design and management, crop yield simulation, and water resources planning and management. Simple regression techniques, may sometimes, provide adequate estimation of ET₀. Implementation of regression methods considering all the predictor variables may, however, lead to overfit and consequent reduction in the predictive capability. The regression models for ET₀ have been developed in the present study for Tirupati, Nellore, Rajahmundry, Anakapalli and Rajendranagar regions of Andhra Pradesh, India by following step-wise procedure, eliminating superfluous predictor variables based on statistical criteria. The sunshine hours, wind velocity, temperature and relative humidity influenced ET₀ in the study area. The linear regression models developed in terms of predictor variables may conveniently be applied in the regions selected for the present study and, in the regions with similar climatic conditions for satisfactory ET₀ estimation.     

Integrated Water Resources Management in Polrud Irrigation System

Water is needed in all aspects of life and is vital to its social, economical and environmental dimensions. Having a key role in sustainable development, water management requires an integrated approach. Irrigation Water shortage promotes the development of innovative management and supply enhancement models. Effective water management requires a comprehensive consideration of all related aspects, e.g., technical, social, environmental, institutional, political and financial. Then the conventional methods of cost-benefit analysis and single-objective models have changed to multi-objective models. The rising of population in Iran puts significant pressure on authorities and infrastructures to provide water. Without improvement in water management, Irrigation demand will continue to increase, water supplies will diminish and the population pressure will decay infrastructure. This paper describes compromise programming to solve multi-criteria decision making in irrigation planning for Polrud project in the North of Iran. The important objectives of project are: regulation of reliable water at the demand time, improving rice and tea production, domestic water supply, environmental needs as well as reducing social conflicts. After execution of the model, results show the optimum decision for crops pattern and extents of allocated water to each area. This study is a successful implementation of IWRM in irrigation planning.     

Forecasting of Remotely Sensed Daily Evapotranspiration Data Over Nile Delta Region, Egypt

Daily evapotranspiration is a major component in crops water consumption management plans. Consequently, forecasting of daily evapotranspiration is the keystone of any effective water resources management plans in fragile environment similar to the Nile Delta region. The estimation of daily evapotranspiration was carried out using Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS), while the forecasting of the daily evapotranspiration was carried out using Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) and its derivative Seasonal ARIMA. Remote sensing data were downloaded from European Space Agency (ESA) and used to estimate daily evapotranspiration values. Remote sensing data collected from August 2005 till December 2009 on a monthly basis for daily evapotranspiration estimation. The application of the most adequate ARIMA (2,1,2) to the evapotranspiration data set failed to sustain the forecasting accuracy over a long period of time. Although, time series analysis of daily evapotranspiration data set showed a seasonality behavior and thus, using seasonal ARIMA [(2,1,2) (1,1,2)6] was the optimum to forecast the daily evapotranspiration over the study area and sustain the forecasting accuracy. A linear regression model was established to test the correlation between the forecasted daily evapotranspiration values using S-ARIMA model and the actual values. The forecasting model indicates an increase of the daily evapotranspiration values with about 1.3 mm per day.     

Estimating Pan Evaporation from Limited Meteorological Observations from Turkey

ABSTRACT

Pan evaporation measurements are widely used to estimate evapotranspiration and free water evaporation. Pan evaporation measurements are critical to many applications including irrigation system design, irrigation scheduling, and hydrologic modeling. In many locations, reliable climate measurements consist of daily minimum screen temperature, daily maximum, rainfall, and windspeed. In many situations, it is advantageous to calculate rather than measure pan evaporation. Many formulas have been developed which predict pan evaporation as a function of limited meteorological observations. One of them, a simplified version of Penman's evaporation formula, requires only temperature, wind and dewpoint data in addition to latitude and elevation. This paper evaluates the Penpan Equation for the case of a pan and tests its universality. Estimates differ from measured values by about 0.65 mm/day at 19 locations in Turkey.     

Application of the Sebs Water Balance Model in Estimating Daily Evapotranspiration and Evaporative Fraction from Remote Sensing Data Over the Nile Delta

Estimation of evapotranspiration is always a major component in water resources management. The reliable estimation of daily evapotranspiration supports decision makers to review the current land use practices in terms of water management, while enabling them to propose proper land use changes. Traditional techniques of calculating daily evapotranspiration based on field measurements are valid only for local scales. Earth observation satellite sensors are used in conjunction with Surface Energy Balance (SEB) models to overcome difficulties in obtaining daily evapotranspiration measurements on a regional scale. In this study the SEB System (SEBS) is used to estimate daily evapotranspiration and evaporative fraction over the Nile Delta along with data acquired by the Advance Along Track Scanning Radiometer (AATSR) and the Medium Spectral Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS), and six in situ meteorological stations. The simulated daily evapotranspiration values are compared against actual ground-truth data taken from 92 points uniformly distributed all over the study area. The derived maps and the following correlation analysis show strong agreement, demonstrating SEBS’ applicability and accuracy in the estimation of daily evapotranspiration over agricultural areas.     

张掖节水型社会建设中的农业节水关键技术及集成模式

作者针对张掖地区建设节水型社会、确保农业可持续发展的目标，提出研究适合当地条件的农业节水关键技术，建立和推广应用农业节水技术集成模式的必要性。作者认为在开展灌溉输配水技术、地面灌溉技术、以水权为中心的农户参与式灌溉用水管理技术、非充分灌溉条件下的作物灌溉制度、生物及农艺节水技术、区域地表水与地下水联合运用优化配置技术等农业节水关键技术研究基础上，建立和推广适宜当地大田粮食作物、大田高收益经济作物和设施高效益作物的农业节水技术集成模式。各类农业节水技术集成模式中采用不同的主体节水技术和相关配套技术以及针对不同应用对象的推广方式，技术集成模式推广中需要考虑和探索解决适用规模、节水灌溉技术选用准则、推广应用方式和推广服务体系建设等相关问题。