Review and recent developments of laser ignition for internal combustion engines applications

Performance of future ignition system for internal combustion engines should be reliable and efficient to enhance and sustain combustion stability, since ignition not only initiates combustion but also influences subsequent combustion. Lean burn systems have been regarded as an advanced combustion approach that could improve thermal efficiency while reducing exhaust gas emissions. However, current engines cannot be operated sufficiently lean due to ignition related problems such as the sluggish flame initiation and propagation along with potential misfiring. A high exhaust gas recirculation engines also has similar potential for emissions improvement, but could also experience similar ignition problems, particularly at idle operation. Similarly, ignition is an important design factor in gas turbine and rocket combustor.Recently, non-conventional ignition techniques such as laser-induced ignition methods have become an attractive field of research in order to replace the conventional spark ignition systems. The fundamentals of conventional laser-induced spark ignition have been previously reviewed. Therefore, the objective of this article is to review progress on the use of such innovative techniques of laser-induced ignition including laser-induced cavity ignition and laser-induced multi-point ignition. In addition, emphasis is given to recent work to explore the feasibility of this interesting technology for practical applications concerning internal combustion engines.     

Characterisation of laser ignition in hydrogen–air mixtures in a combustion bomb

Laser-induced spark ignition of lean hydrogen–air mixtures was experimentally investigated using nanosecond pulses generated by Q-switched Nd:YAG laser (wavelength 1064 nm) at initial pressure of 3 MPa and temperature 323 K in a constant volume combustion chamber. Laser ignition has several advantages over conventional ignition systems especially in internal combustion engines, hence it is necessary to characterise the combustion phenomena from start of plasma formation to end of combustion. In the present experimental investigation, the formation of laser plasma by spontaneous emission technique and subsequently developing flame kernel was measured. Initially, the plasma propagates towards the incoming laser. This backward moving plasma (towards the focusing lens) grows much faster than the forward moving plasma (along the direction of laser). A piezoelectric pressure transducer was used to measure the pressure rise in the combustion chamber. Hydrogen–air mixtures were also ignited using a spark plug under identical experimental conditions and results are compared with the laser ignition ones.     

Understanding ignition processes in spray-guided gasoline engines using high-speed imaging and the extended spark-ignition model SparkCIMM: Part B: Importance of molecular fuel properties in early flame front propagation

Recent high-speed imaging of ignition processes in spray-guided gasoline engines has motivated the development of the physically-based spark channel ignition monitoring model SparkCIMM, which bridges the gap between a detailed spray/vaporization model and a model for fully developed turbulent flame front propagation. Previously, both SparkCIMM and high-speed optical imaging data have shown that, in spray-guided engines, the spark plasma channel is stretched and wrinkled by the local turbulence, excessive stretching results in spark re-strikes, large variations occur in turbulence intensity and local equivalence ratio along the spark channel, and ignition occurs in localized regions along the spark channel (based upon a Karlovitz-number criteria).In this paper, SparkCIMM is enhanced by: (1) an extended flamelet model to predict localized ignition spots along the spark plasma channel, (2) a detailed chemical mechanism for gasoline surrogate oxidation, and (3) a formulation of early flame kernel propagation based on the G-equation theory that includes detailed chemistry and a local enthalpy flamelet model to consider turbulent enthalpy fluctuations. In agreement with new experimental data from broadband spark and hot soot luminosity imaging, the model establishes that ignition prefers to occur in fuel-rich regions along the spark channel. In this highly-turbulent highly-stratified environment, these ignition spots burn as quasi-laminar flame kernels. In this paper, the laminar burning velocities and flame thicknesses of these kernels are calculated along the mean turbulent flame front, using tabulated detailed chemistry flamelets over a wide range of stoichiometry and exhaust gas dilution. The criteria for flame propagation include chemical (cross-over temperature based) and turbulence (Karlovitz-number based) effects. Numerical simulations using ignition models of different physical complexity demonstrate the significance of turbulent mixture fraction and enthalpy fluctuations in the prediction of early flame front propagation. A third paper on SparkCIMM (companion paper to this one) focuses on the importance of molecular fuel properties and flame curvature on early flame propagation and compares computed flame propagation with high speed combustion imaging and computed heat release rates with cylinder pressure analysis.The goals of SparkCIMM development are to (a) enhance our fundamental understanding of ignition and combustion processes in highly-turbulent highly-stratified engine conditions, (b) incorporate that understanding into a physically-based submodel for RANS engine calculations that can be reliably used without modification for a wide range of conditions (i.e., homogeneous or stratified, low or high turbulence, low or high dilution), and (c) provide a submodel that can be incorporated into a future LES model for physically-based modeling of cycle-to-cycle variability in engines.     

Effect of pre-chamber geometrical parameters and operating conditions on the combustion characteristics of the hydrogen-air mixtures in a pre-chamber spark ignition system

The pre-chamber spark ignition system is a promising advanced ignition system adopted for lean burn spark ignition engines as it enables stable combustion and enhances engine efficiency. The performance of the PCSI system is governed by the turbulent flame jet ejected from the pre-chamber, which is influenced by the pre-chamber geometrical parameters and the operating conditions. Hence, the current study aims to understand the effects of pre-chamber volume, nozzle hole diameter, equivalence ratio, and initial chamber pressure on the combustion and flame jet characteristics of hydrogen-air mixture in a passive PCSI system. Pre-chamber with different nozzle hole diameters (1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, and 4 mm) and volumes (2%, 4%, and 6% of the engine clearance volume) were selected and manufactured in-house. The experimental investigation of these pre-chamber configurations was carried out in a constant-volume combustion chamber with optical access. The flame development process was captured using a high-speed camera at a rate of 20000 fps, and the images were processed in MATLAB to obtain quantitative data. The combustion characteristics of hydrogen-air mixtures with the PCSI system improved when compared to the conventional SI system; however, the improvement was more significant for ultra-lean mixtures. Early start of combustion and shorter combustion duration were observed for PCSI – D2 and PCSI – D3 configurations, respectively and improved combustion and flame jet characteristics were also noted for these configurations. With the increase in pre-chamber volume, ignition energy associated with the flame jet increases, which reduces the combustion duration and the ignition lag.     

Ignition of turbulent non-premixed flames

The initiation of turbulent non-premixed combustion of gaseous fuels through autoignition and through spark ignition is reviewed, motivated by the increasing relevance of these phenomena for new combustion technologies. The fundamentals of the associated turbulent-chemistry interactions are emphasized. Background information from corresponding laminar flow problems, relevant turbulent combustion modelling approaches, and the ignition of turbulent sprays are included. For both autoignition and spark ignition, examination of the reaction zones in mixture fraction space is revealing. We review experimental and numerical data on the stochastic nature of the emergence of autoignition kernels and of the creation of kernels and subsequent flame establishment following spark ignition, aiming to reveal the particular facet of the turbulence causing the stochasticity. In contrast to fully-fledged turbulent combustion where the effects of turbulence on the reaction are reasonably well-established, at least qualitatively, here the turbulence can cause trends that are not straightforward.     

Measurements of minimum ignition energy in premixed laminar methane/air flow by using laser induced spark

Reducing engine pollutant emissions and fuel consumption is an important challenge. Lean-burning engines are a promising development; however, such engines require high-energy ignition systems for typical working conditions (equivalence ratio, Φ < 0.7). Laser-induced ignition is envisaged as a way to obtain high-energy ignition as a result of progress that has been made in laser beam technology in terms of stability, size, and energy. This study investigated the minimum energy necessary to ignite a laminar premixed methane air mixture experimentally. A parametrical study was performed to characterize the effects of the flow velocity, equivalence ratio, and lens focal length on the minimum energy required for ignition. Experiments were conducted using a premixed laminar CH₄/air burner. Laser-induced breakdown was achieved by focusing a 532-nm nanosecond pulse from a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser with an anti-reflection-coated lens. Mixture ignition and the early stages of flame propagation were studied using a high speed Schlieren technique. Despite the stochastic characteristic of the laser breakdown phenomena, good reproducibility in the minimum energy required for the ignition measurements was observed. The cases in which the CH₄/Air mixture flow ignites are defined as those with a laminar flame front propagation visible in the Schlieren images 10 ms after the energy deposition. The same minimum ignition energy (MIE) versus equivalence ratio (Φ) type of curves were obtained with a laser-induced spark and with a spark plug. Due to the threshold of energy required to obtain breakdown and the stochastic character of the energy absorption by the spark, a constant value was obtained (corresponding to the breakdown threshold) when the minimum ignition energy was lower than the breakdown threshold. As already noticed by several authors, MIE values higher than those observed using spark plugs were obtained. However, these differences tended to disappear at the lean and rich fuel limits.     

缸内直接喷射式汽油机点火稳定性的数值分析

缸内直接喷射式汽油机的一个显著特点是依靠火花塞点燃喷入缸内的汽油油束。由于缸内混合气浓度极不均匀，所以其点火及火焰传播过程与普通均质燃烧式发动机有很大的不同。火焰核心的稳定形成及初始火焰发展对缸内的整个燃烧过程有极其重要的影响。本文利用二维两相混合模型模拟喷雾过程，利用一个详细的准维模型模拟火花塞的点火过程，并采用特殊处理方法使两个子模型相匹配，计算了缸内直接喷射式汽油机从喷雾到形成稳定火核的全过程，分析了多种因素对点火稳定性的影响，尤其是对涡流比、点火时刻和喷油定时之间的适当配合进行了模拟分析。计算结果对优化实验有明显的指导作用。     

Influence of laser ignition on characteristics of an engine for hydrogen enriched CNG and iso-octane usage

The study has focused on determining the laser plug effects on engine characteristics and the laser plug usage results have compared with spark plug usage. The laser ignition technique is a type of new ignition technique and an important solution that can make combustion systems more efficient. The testing of an engine with a laser plug is the novelty of the study and the tests were carried out with reference to equivalence ratio and plug power ranges. The behaviors of the engine at full load were examined so experimentally for both ignition techniques at hydrogen enriched CNG and iso-octane mixture usage. The tests were carried out for variations of 0.4–2.0 equivalence ratio and 20–120 W plug power. A mixture that 90% iso-octane and 10% HCNG in mass was used at two ignition modes in tests for 3300 rpm maximum engine torque speed. Also, the flame formation and propagation for both ignition techniques were detected via a high-speed camera. The tests have shown the laser ignition leads to more energy consumption in the rich mixture conditions and also, less energy is required in the lean conditions. The laser ignition discharge has extended the engine's lean combustion limits via a small energy input at the tests. The high-speed camera images have shown that the laser ignition reduces the Kernel flame formation and propagation time. The laser ignition technique was produced less NO_x than the conventional spark ignition method.     

Characterization of flame front propagation during early and late combustion for methane-hydrogen fueling of an optically accessible SI engine

In recent years, hybrid and fully electric vehicles have received significant consideration since they represent an alternative sustainable transport to the conventional fossil-fuel powered vehicles. However, a worldwide implementation of this alternative propulsion can induce large and undesirable peak demands in distributed power systems. In this context, natural gas spark ignition engines are a promising form of technology to supply part of the energy demand. The main limitations related to low laminar flame propagation speed and poor lean-burn capabilities of natural gas can be overcome by using hydrogen as additional fuel. In this paper, a comparison was carried out between methane and different CH₄/H₂ mixtures. Specifically, low levels of hydrogen addition were used (5%, 10%, 20% volumetric basis) in stoichiometric and lean burn conditions. The measurements were carried out in an optically accessible single-cylinder port fuel injection spark ignition engine. Optical measurements were performed to analyze the combustion process with high spatial and temporal resolution. In particular, optical techniques based on 2D-digital imaging with two different combustion chamber views were used. Macroscopic (global) and microscopic (local) post-processing tools were implemented to provide a detailed analysis of the flame front propagation process. Moreover, an in-depth analysis was performed to study the flame penetration in the piston top-land crevice. Exhaust gas emissions were also characterized and linked with thermodynamic and optical data. In order to evaluate the combustion process in similar fluid-dynamic conditions, all measurements were performed under steady-state conditions at fixed engine speed, load and spark advance. All the results highlight fast combustion promotion due to the hydrogen addition. In addition, hydrogen reduces the preferential propagation of the flame in a certain direction and increases the flame front wrinkling. Flame propagation in the top-land crevice region was measured for methane and its blends with hydrogen, which represents an original contribution to the literature. An inverse trend was seen between flame penetration in the crevice and unburned hydrocarbon emissions. Lastly, tests in lean conditions demonstrate the potential to decrease nitrogen oxides emissions when methane and methane-hydrogen blends are used.     

Spark ignited hydrogen/air mixtures: two dimensional detailed modeling and laser based diagnostics

This study reports a detailed 2-D model which describes the spark ignition of an initially quiescent hydrogen/air mixture. The model includes the compressible Navier-Stokes equations, detailed chemistry and molecular transport in the gas phase as well as heat conduction to the electrodes. The spark is modeled for the phases subsequent to breakdown using the Maxwell equations for quasi-stationary conditions for the electric field. Initial and boundary conditions necessary for the simulations are chosen in accordance with experimental values. Heat conduction to the electrodes and different electrode shapes are investigated. The influence of these parameters on the shape of the initial flame kernel is discussed and compared qualitatively to experimental results. Spark ignition experiments are performed using a highly reproducible ignition system. Shapes of the early flame kernels are monitored by 2-D laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) imaging of OH radicals produced during the ignition and the combustion process. The investigations are performed for different equivalence ratios. In addition, for a central position within the flame kernel, temperatures are measured at different times after ignition using vibrational coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) of nitrogen.     

The internal structure of igniting turbulent sprays as revealed by complex chemistry DNS

A parametric study of spark ignition in a uniform monodisperse turbulent spray is performed with complex chemistry three-dimensional Direct Numerical Simulations in order to improve the understanding of the structure of the ignition kernel. The heat produced by the kernel increases with the amount of fuel evaporated inside the spark volume. Moreover, the heat sink by evaporation is initially higher than the heat release and can have a negative effect on ignition. With the sprays investigated, heat release occurs over a large range of mixture fractions, being high within the nominal flammability limits and finite but low below the lean flammability limit. The burning of very lean regions is attributed to the diffusion of heat and species from regions of high heat release, and from the spark, to lean regions. Two modes of spray ignition are reported. With a relatively dilute spray, nominally flammable material exists only near the droplets. Reaction zones are created locally near the droplets and have a non-premixed character. They spread from droplet to droplet through a very lean interdroplet spacing. With a dense spray, the hot spark region is rich due to substantial evaporation but the cold region remains lean. In between, a large surface of flammable material is generated by evaporation. Ignition occurs there and a large reaction zone propagates from the rich burned region to the cold lean region. This flame is wrinkled due to the stratified mixture fraction field and evaporative cooling. In the dilute spray, the reaction front curvature pdf contains high values associated with single droplet combustion, while in the dense spray, the curvature is lower and closer to the curvature associated with gaseous fuel ignition kernels.     

Plasma-assisted ignition and combustion

The use of a thermal equilibrium plasma for combustion control dates back more than a hundred years to the advent of internal combustion (IC) engines and spark ignition systems. The same principles are still applied today to achieve high efficiency in various applications. Recently, the potential use of nonequilibrium plasma for ignition and combustion control has garnered increasing interest due to the possibility of plasma-assisted approaches for ignition and flame stabilization. During the past decade, significant progress has been made toward understanding the mechanisms of plasma–chemistry interactions, energy redistribution and the nonequilibrium initiation of combustion. In addition, a wide variety of fuels have been examined using various types of discharge plasmas. Plasma application has been shown to provide additional combustion control, which is necessary for ultra-lean flames, high-speed flows, cold low-pressure conditions of high-altitude gas turbine engine (GTE) relight, detonation initiation in pulsed detonation engines (PDE) and distributed ignition control in homogeneous charge-compression ignition (HCCI) engines, among others. The present paper describes the current understanding of the nonequilibrium excitation of combustible mixtures by electrical discharges and plasma-assisted ignition and combustion.     

稀燃汽油机混合气分层优化技术

采用“气道内二交燃油喷射”技术以实现汽油机稀混合气燃烧。将每循环所需燃油量分两部分喷射,一部分燃油为缸内提供均质稀混合气,另一部分燃油借助地气流动和适时喷射使混合气形成“局部分层”。在一台五气门汽油上实验证实,这种新喷油方式能够节油17%,比传统稀燃方式提高稀燃能力2个空燃比单位,并进一步降低HC和NOx排放浓度30%-50%,调节两部分喷油的分配比例,可自由控制火花塞周围混合气浓度及其它区域混合气的浓度。     

火花点火式天然气发动机燃烧模拟计算及爆燃预测

本文提出了一种利用化学反应动力学模型与燃烧模型及紊流火焰传播模型建立的点火式天然气发动机双区燃烧模型 ,用该模型能较好地模拟点火式天然气发动机燃烧过程 ,并能实现爆燃预测及研究其发生的诸多因素。采用此模型对CA6 10 2汽油机改装为点火式天然气发动机 (以下简称为“CNG发动机”)进行模拟计算的结果与试验结果能较好地吻合 ,证明了该模型的可行性。     

电喷LPG发动机快速燃烧过程的应用研究

介绍了应用于高速单燃料LPG电喷发动机的高能双火花塞快速燃烧系统的组成及其在发动机稳态运行工况的稀燃研究。开发了发动机多通道瞬态燃烧分析系统用于LPG快速燃烧过程的研究,快速燃烧系统的同步、异步点火通过ECU及其控制策略的控制实现。试验结果表明：LPG混合气的火焰传播速度得到提高,LPG的燃烧稀限由过量空气系数1．25—1．4拓展为1．4—1．5;结合燃烧室和火花塞位置的优化,火焰传播距离被缩短以实现LPG稀混合气的快速燃烧。     

Effect of hydrogen addition on early flame growth of lean burn natural gas–air mixtures

Effect of hydrogen addition on early flame growth of lean burn natural gas–air mixtures was investigated experimentally and numerically. The flame propagating photos of premixed combustion and direct-injection combustion was obtained by using a constant volume vessel and schlieren photographic technique. The pressure derived initial combustion durations were also obtained at different hydrogen fractions (from 0% to 40% in volumetric fraction) at overall equivalence ratio of 0.6 and 0.8, respectively. The laminar premixed methane–hydrogen–air flames were calculated with PREMIX code of CHEMKIN II program with GRI 3.0 mechanism. The results showed that the initial combustion process of lean burn natural gas–air mixtures was enhanced as hydrogen is added to natural gas in the case of both premixed combustion and direct-injection combustion. This phenomenon is more obvious at leaner mixture condition near the lean limit of natural gas. The mole fractions of OH and O are increased with the increase of hydrogen fraction and the position of maximum OH and O mole fractions move closing to the unburned mixture side. A monotonic correlation between initial combustion duration with the reciprocal maximum OH mole fraction in the flames is observed. The enhancement of the spark ignition of natural gas with hydrogen addition can be ascribed to the increase of OH and O mole fractions in the flames.     

Hydromethane: A bridge towards the hydrogen economy or an unsustainable promise?

Last decade enthusiasm about hydrogen-based economy on FC has partially been lost and spotlight is now back on using pure hydrogen or hydrogen mixtures in ICE. Pure hydrogen use in spark ignition (SI) ICE requires a dedicated engine design to optimize the high speed flame and the high pressure and temperature inside the combustion chamber. But, on the other end, may lead to high exhaust emissions of nitrogen oxides NOx. Moreover, hydrogen fueled vehicles also suffer of a very low mileage due to the very low energy density of the fuel, since hydrogen as a compressed gas at 200 atmospheres and ambient temperature has around 5% of the energy of gasoline of the same volume.     

摩托车汽油机的爆燃预测研究

结合燃烧模型，湍流火焰传播模型以及化学动力学模型，建立了摩托车四冲程汽油机双区准维燃烧模型。运用该模型模拟燃烧过程，并进行爆燃预测。用此模型CUB100摩托车汽油机进行了计算，预测了CUB100提高压缩比后爆燃的发生。     

点燃式发动机点火能量对火核生成和初期发展的影响

摘要本文研究了点燃式发动机点火能量对火核生成和初期发展的影响.发现增加点火时的击穿能量,可使火核的初始尺寸有效地增加,从而加快火焰的形成和初期发展,并且可以燃烧更为稀薄的混合气,而仅仅增加电容和电感放电阶段的点火能量却没有显著的效果.     

Stoichiometric H2ICEs with water injection

For the most part, gasoline engines operate close to stoichiometry because of the high power density and the easy after treatment through the very well established three-way catalytic converter technology. The lean burn gasoline engine suffers major disadvantages for the after treatment still requiring aggressive research and development to meet future emission standards more than for the lower power density compensated by the better fuel conversion efficiency running lean. Hydrogen engines are usually run ultra-lean to avoid abnormal combustion phenomena and possibly to avoid the emission of nitrogen oxides without the difficult non-stoichiometric after treatment. While the ultra-lean combustion of hydrogen may reduce the formation of NOx within the cylinder but makes the power density very low, the only lean combustion of hydrogen requires after treatment for NOx reduction. The suppression of abnormal combustion in hydrogen engines has been a challenge for the three regimes of abnormal combustion, knock (auto ignition of the end gas region), pre-ignition (uncontrolled ignition induced by a hot spot prior of the spark ignition) and backfire (premature ignition during the intake stroke, which could be seen as an early form of pre-ignition). Direct injection and jet ignition coupled to port water injection are used here to avoid the occurrence of all these abnormal combustion phenomena as well as to control the temperature of gases to turbine in a turbocharged stoichiometric hydrogen engine.