High-resolution ultrasonic imaging using fast two-dimensional homomorphic filtering.

A new method for two-dimensional deconvolution of medical ultrasonic images is presented. The spatial resolution of the deconvolved images is much higher compared to the common images of the fundamental and second harmonic. The deconvolution also results in a more distinct speckle pattern. Unlike the most published deconvolution algorithms for ultrasonic images, the presented technique can be implemented using currently available hardware in real-time imaging, with a rate up to 50 frames per second. This makes it attractive for application in the current ultrasound scanners. The algorithm is based on two-dimensional homomorphic deconvolution with simplified assumptions about the point spread function. Broadband radio frequency image data are deconvolved instead of common fundamental harmonic data. Thus, information of both the first and second harmonics is used. The method was validated on image data recorded from a tissue-mimicking phantom and on clinical image data.     

Speckle reduction in pulse-echo ultrasonic imaging using a two-dimensional receiving array

An experimental pulse-echo imager was developed for the purpose of reducing speckle in ultrasonic images. The system utilized a 64-element spherically focused segmented annuli array receiver with a common transmitter. Compounded images were formed using subapertures of varying size, shape, and overlap, and the speckle and resolution characteristics of the final images were observed. A pointlike scatterer was imaged to determine the resolution, point spread function, and sensitivity of the system along with a new measure called the resolution cell size. The response of the system was also simulated for comparisons. It was found that lateral resolution, and resolution cell sizes only gradually increased with a decrease in subaperture size and system sensitivity was not greatly diminished. Incoherent summation of signals from small groups of elements decreased the speckle noise by a factor of four while maintaining enough resolution to improve the image quality as measured by the CSR/d by a factor of almost two.     

High-resolution, air-coupled ultrasonic imaging of thin materials

This paper describes the use of a focused air-coupled capacitance transducer combined with pulse compression techniques to form high-resolution images of thin materials in air. The focusing of the device is achieved by using an off-axis parabolic mirror. The lateral resolution of the focused transducer, operating over a bandwidth of 1.2 MHz, was found to be less than 0.5 mm. A combination of the focused transducer as a source and a planar receiver in through-transmission mode has been developed for the measurement of different features in paper products, with a lateral resolution in through-transmission imaging of /spl sim/0.4 mm. Images in air of thin samples such as bank notes, high-quality writing paper, stamps, and sealed joints were obtained without contact to the sample.     

Adaptive clutter rejection filtering in ultrasonic strain-flow imaging

This paper introduces strain-flow imaging as a potential new technique for investigating vascular dynamics and tumor biology. The deformation of tissues surrounding pulsatile vessels and the velocity of fluid in the vessel are estimated from the same data set. The success of the approach depends on the performance of a digital filter that must separate echo signal components caused by flow from tissue motion components that vary spatially and temporally. Eigenfilters, which are an important tool for naturally separating signal components adaptively throughout the image, perform very well for this task. The method is examined using two tissue-mimicking flow phantoms that provide stationary and moving clutter associated with pulsatile flow.     

Pulse elongation and deconvolution filtering for medical ultrasonic imaging

Range sidelobe artifacts which are associated with pulse compression methods can be reduced with a new method composed of pulse elongation and deconvolution (PED). While pulse compression and PED yield similar signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) improvements, PED inherently minimizes the range sidelobe artifacts. The deconvolution is implemented as a stabilized inverse filter. With proper selection of the excitation waveform an exact inverse filter can be implemented. The excitation waveform is optimized in a minimum mean square error (MMSE) sense. An analytical expression for the power spectrum of the optimal pulse is presented and several techniques to numerically optimize the excitation pulse are shown. The effects of PED are demonstrated in computer simulations as well as ultrasonic images.     

Analysis of homomorphic processing for ultrasonic grain signal characterization

A model for the grain signal is presented, which includes the effect of frequency-dependent scattering and attenuation. This model predicts that the expected frequency increases with scattering and decreases with attenuation. Homomorphic processing was used for spectral smoothing, and the selection of parameters for optimal performance was examined. Experimental results are presented that show both the upward shift in the expected frequency with grain boundary scattering and the downward shift with attenuation. Furthermore, it is shown that the expected frequency shift can be correlated with the grain size of the material. It is important to point out that the quantitative relationship between the average grain size and the expected frequency shift (either upward or downward) is dependent on the type of material, the quality of grain boundaries, and the characteristics of the measuring instruments.     

High-resolution inversion of ultrasonic traces

An algorithm for estimating the acoustic reflection coefficient profile from ultrasonic traces obtained during inspection of layered materials is described. Given the measured trace and the incident wavelet, the inversion proceeds by means of a layer stripping approach combined with high-resolution deconvolution. The inversion algorithm is stable to noise and is suitable for use with bandlimited data. It is particularly suitable for use with materials that exhibit a few large discontinuities in impedance and in which multiple reflections in the data are evident. The performance of the algorithm is illustrated in tests with synthetic and real data. An implementation of the algorithm on a TMS 320C30 signal processing board allowed the inversion of an entire set of 256 traces, each of 256 elements, in 15 s.     

Temperature estimation using ultrasonic spatial compound imaging

The feasibility of temperature estimation during high-intensity focused ultrasound therapy using pulse-echo diagnostic ultrasound data has been demonstrated. This method is based upon the measurement of thermally-induced modifications in backscattered RF echoes due to thermal expansion and local changes in the speed of sound. It has been shown that strong ripple artifacts due to the thermo-acoustic lens effect severely corrupt the temperature estimates behind the heated region. We propose here a new imaging technique that improves the temperature estimation behind the heated region and reduces the variance of the temperature estimates in the entire image. We replaced the conventional beamforming on transmit with multiple steered plane wave insonifications using several subapertures. A two-dimensional temperature map is estimated from axial displacement maps between consecutive RF images of identically steered plane wave insonifications. Temperature estimation is then improved by averaging the two-dimensional maps from the multiple steered plane wave insonifications. Experiments were conducted in a tissue-mimicking gelatin-based phantom and in fresh bovine liver.     

High-resolution imaging ellipsometer

We report on a novel imaging ellipsometer using a high-numerical-aperture (NA) objective lens capable of measuring a two-dimensional ellipsometric signal with high resolution. Two-dimensional ellipsometric imaging is made possible by spatial filtering at the pupil plane of the objective. A Richards-Wolf vectorial diffraction model and geometrical optics model are developed to simulate the system. The thickness profile of patterned polymethyl methacrylate is measured for calibration purposes. Our instrument has a sensitivity of 5 A and provides spatial resolution of approximately 0.5 microm with 632.8-nm illumination. Its capability of measuring refractive-index variations with high spatial resolution is also demonstrated.     

Three-dimensional photoacoustic imaging using a two-dimensional CMUT array

In this paper, we describe using a 2-D array of capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) to perform 3-D photoacoustic and acoustic imaging. A tunable optical parametric oscillator laser system that generates nanosecond laser pulses was used to induce the photoacoustic signals. To demonstrate the feasibility of the system, 2 different phantoms were imaged. The first phantom consisted of alternating black and transparent fishing lines of 180 μm and 150 μm diameter, respectively. The second phantom comprised polyethylene tubes, embedded in chicken breast tissue, filled with liquids such as the dye indocyanine green, pig blood, and a mixture of the 2. The tubes were embedded at a depth of 0.8 cm inside the tissue and were at an overall distance of 1.8 cm from the CMUT array. Two-dimensional cross-sectional slices and 3-D volume rendered images of pulse-echo data as well as photoacoustic data are presented. The profile and beamwidths of the fishing line are analyzed and compared with a numerical simulation carried out using the Field II ultrasound simulation software. We investigated using a large aperture (64 x 64 element array) to perform photoacoustic and acoustic imaging by mechanically scanning a smaller CMUT array (16 x 16 elements). Two-dimensional transducer arrays overcome many of the limitations of a mechanically scanned system and enable volumetric imaging. Advantages of CMUT technology for photoacoustic imaging include the ease of integration with electronics, ability to fabricate large, fully populated 2-D arrays with arbitrary geometries, wide-bandwidth arrays and high-frequency arrays. A CMUT based photoacoustic system is proposed as a viable alternative to a piezoelectric transducer based photoacoustic systems.     

Internal displacement and strain imaging using ultrasonic speckletracking

Previous ultrasound speckle tracking methods have been extended, permitting measurement of internal displacement and strain fields over a wide dynamic range of tissue motion. The markedly increased dynamic range of this approach should lead to enhanced contrast resolution in strain and elasticity images. Results of experiments on gelatin-based, tissue equivalent phantoms show the capabilities of the method     

Electronic scanning in ultrasonic imaging using a wedge transducer

The position-dependent resonant frequency of a wedge transducer is used to obtain electronic scanning of an ultrasonic beam by varying the frequency. A theoretical calculation of the resolution using the staircase model is in good agreement with the experiment. The principle has been applied to ultrasonic imaging both by combining the wedge transducer with a cylindrical lens and by direct emission into water. A higher resolution is obtained in the latter case, in agreement with the theory. Such a system is proposed as a rapid real-time imaging system for applications not requiring high resolution.     

Characterization of reinforced syntactic foams using ultrasonic imaging technique

Non-destructive evaluation of defects like voids in syntactic foam reinforced with epoxy compatible chopped strand glass fibres, employing ultrasonic C-scan immersion through transmission method, was under-taken. The results showed that in four of the five similarly processed foam samples, the voids were uniformly spread while in the fifth, which was processed by a different route, a large spread of low dense area was noticed emphasizing the influence that processing technique has on the amount of voids present in the composites.     

C- and D-weighted ultrasonic imaging using the translating apertures algorithm

Conventional ultrasonic imaging systems depict tissue backscatter, that is, the ultrasonic energy reflected directly back toward the transmitter. Although diagnostically useful, these systems fail to exploit the information available in components of the sound field scattered in other directions. This paper describes a new method of imaging this angular scatter. First, the translating apertures algorithm (TAA) is used to acquire data at two scattering angles. Then, these data are processed to yield an image of the common scattering with angle and the differential scattering with angle. This paper explores the potential of these common-weighted (c-weighted) and difference-weighted (d-weighted) images using theory and simulations. In addition, it describes and analyzes the performance of the TAA when it is applied using multiple receive elements. Analysis is presented that shows that, in Rayleigh scattering environments, c- and d-weighted images depict compressibility and density variations, respectively. A simulated image and accompanying analysis are presented that show the potential of these techniques to improve soft tissue contrast and to increase the detectability of microcalcifications. A comparison with previous angular scatter measurement techniques shows that use of the TAA significantly reduces statistical variability in measured angular scatter profiles. Spatially localized, statistically reliable angular scatter measurements will enable a broad range of angular scatter imaging techniques. C- and d-weighted imaging may ultimately he applied clinically to identify calcification in atherosclerotic plaques and breast tumors     

Through-transmission imaging of solids in air using ultrasonic gas-jet waveguides

An ultrasonic waveguide has been produced in air by using a gas jet. This uses the fact that a lower acoustic velocity can be produced within the jet, relative to the air surrounding it. The lower velocity is achieved by mixing carbon dioxide with air within the jet at a concentration that is a compromise between lower acoustic velocity and increasing attenuation. Using a capacitance transducer placed within the flowing gas, it is shown that improvements in the beam width can result when the gas jet is used. Air-coupled images of solid samples have been produced in through transmission, which demonstrate that an improved lateral resolution can result when a comparison is made to images from conventional air-coupled testing.     

Efficient dynamic focus control for three-dimensional imaging using two-dimensional arrays

An efficient dynamic focus control scheme for a delay-and-sum-based beamformer is proposed. The scheme simplifies dynamic focus control by exploiting the range-dependent characteristics of the focusing delay. Specifically, the overall delay is divided into a range-independent steering term and a range-dependent focusing term. Because the focusing term is inversely proportional to range, approximation can be made to simplify dynamic focus control significantly at the price of minimal degradation in focusing quality at shallow depths. In addition, the aperture growth controlled by a constant f//sub number/ can also be utilized to devise a nonuniform quantization scheme for the focusing delay values. Efficacy of the proposed scheme is demonstrated using simulated beam plots of a fully sampled, two-dimensional array. Design procedures are also described in detail. One design example shows that, with the proposed dynamic focus control scheme, a 4096-element array only requires 227 independent controllers for the range-dependent focusing term. Moreover, only 28 non-uniform quantization levels are required to achieve the same focusing quality as that of a conventional scheme with 784 uniform quantization levels. The beam plots of a fully sampled array show that sidelobes are slightly increased below the -30 dB level for imaging depths less than 3 cm. At greater depths, there is no observable degradation.     

The wavenumber algorithm for full-matrix imaging using an ultrasonic array

Ultrasonic imaging using full-matrix capture, e.g., via the total focusing method (TFM), has been shown to increase angular inspection coverage and improve sensitivity to small defects in nondestructive evaluation. In this paper, we develop a Fourier-domain approach to full-matrix imaging based on the wavenumber algorithm used in synthetic aperture radar and sonar. The extension to the wavenumber algorithm for full-matrix data is described and the performance of the new algorithm compared with the TFM, which we use as a representative benchmark for the time-domain algorithms. The wavenumber algorithm provides a mathematically rigorous solution to the inverse problem for the assumed forward wave propagation model, whereas the TFM employs heuristic delay-and-sum beamforming. Consequently, the wavenumber algorithm has an improved point-spread function and provides better imagery. However, the major advantage of the wavenumber algorithm is its superior computational performance. For large arrays and images, the wavenumber algorithm is several orders of magnitude faster than the TFM. On the other hand, the key advantage of the TFM is its flexibility. The wavenumber algorithm requires a regularly sampled linear array, while the TFM can handle arbitrary imaging geometries. The TFM and the wavenumber algorithm are compared using simulated and experimental data.     

An FPGA-based ultrasound imaging system using capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers

We report the design and experimental results of a field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-based real-time ultrasound imaging system that uses a 16-element phased-array capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer fabricated using a fusion bonding process. The imaging system consists of the transducer, discrete analog components situated on a custom-made circuit board, the FPGA, and a monitor. The FPGA program consists of five functional blocks: a main counter, transmit and receive beamformer, receive signal pre-processing, envelope detection, and display. No dedicated digital signal processor or personal computer is required for the imaging system. An experiment is carried out to obtain the sector B-scan of a 4-wire target. The ultrasound imaging system demonstrates the possibility of an integrated system-in-a-package solution.     

Speckle tracking methods for ultrasonic elasticity imaging using short-time correlation

In ultrasound elasticity imaging, strain decorrelation is a major source of error in displacements estimated using correlation techniques. This error can be significantly decreased by reducing the correlation kernel. Additional gains in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) are possible by filtering the correlation functions prior to displacement estimation. Tradeoffs between spatial resolution and estimate variance are discussed, and estimation in elasticity imaging is compared to traditional time-delay estimation. Simulations and experiments on gel-based phantoms are presented. The results demonstrate that high resolution, high SNR strain estimates can be computed using small correlation kernels (on the order of the autocorrelation width of the ultrasound signal) and correlation filtering.