A review on hyperspectral remote sensing for homogeneous and heterogeneous forest biodiversity assessment

This review paper evaluates the potential of hyperspectral remote sensing for assessing species diversity in homogeneous (non-tropical) and heterogeneous (tropical) forest, an increasingly urgent task. Existing studies of species distribution patterns using hyperspectral remote sensing have used different techniques to discriminate different species, in which the wavelet transforms, derivative analysis and red edge positions are the most important of them. The wavelet transform is used based on its effectiveness and determined as the most powerful technique to identify species. Furthermore, estimations of relationships between spectral values and species distributions using chemical composition of foliage, tree phenology, selection of signature training sites based on field measured canopy composition, selection of the best wavelet coefficient and waveband regions may be useful to identify different plant species. This paper presents a summary on the feasibility, operational applications and possible strategies of hyperspectral remote sensing in forestry, especially in assessing its biodiversity. The paper also reviews the processing and analysis of techniques for hyperspectral data in discriminating different forest tree species.     

Optimizing predictive models for leaf chlorophyll concentration based on continuous wavelet analysis of hyperspectral data

Recent studies have demonstrated that the decomposition of hyperspectral data using wavelet analysis is able to generate wavelet coefficients that can be used for estimating leaf chlorophyll (chl) concentrations. However, there is considerable scope for refining such techniques and this study addresses this issue by identifying the optimal spectral domain for use in constructing predictive models. Leaf reflectance spectra were simulated with the PROSPECT model (a model of leaf optical properties spectra) using randomly selected values for the input parameters. From reflectance and first derivative spectra different spectral wavelength domains were extracted, ranging from 400–450 to 400–2500 nm, using increments of 50 nm for the upper wavelength limit. Using the data for each wavelength domain, continuous wavelet decomposition was applied using 53 different wavelets, in turn. The resulting wavelet coefficients, from scales 1 to 128, were used as independent factors to construct predictive models for leaf chl concentration. Wavelet coefficients (at a specific scale generated by a given wavelet) in the chl absorption region remain constant when using spectral wavelength domains of 400–900 nm and broader, but narrower domains cause variability in the coefficients. Lower scale wavelet coefficients (scales 1–32) contain little information on chl concentration and their predictive performance does not vary with the spectral wavelength domain used. The higher scale wavelet coefficients (scales 64 and 128) can capture information on chl concentration, and predictive capability increases rapidly when the spectral wavelength domains vary from 400–700 to 400–900 nm but it can decrease or fluctuate for broader domains. In terms of accuracy and computational efficiency, models derived from the spectral wavelength domain 400–900 nm which use wavelet coefficients from scale 64 are optimal and a range of wavelet functions are suitable for performing the decomposition. The importance of optimizing the spectral wavelength domain highlighted by these findings has broader significance for the use of wavelet decomposition of hyperspectral data in quantifying other vegetation biochemicals and in other remote sensing applications.     

Quantifying empirical relations between planted species mixtures and canopy reflectance with PROTEST

Mapping plant species composition of mixed vegetation stands with remote sensing is a complicated task. Uncertainties may arise from similar spectral signatures of different plant species as well as from variable influences of prevailing plant states (e.g., growth stages, vigor, or stress levels). Despite these uncertainties, empirical approaches may often be able to take up the challenge. However, their performance is likely to be affected by the temporal variability of empirical relations between reflectance and plant species composition. To assess some aspects of this temporal variability, we performed a greenhouse study. Three mixed stands of grassland species were planted with defined spatial variation in species proportions. The canopy reflectance of these mixed stands was measured with a field spectrometer over a period of three months. Confounding external influences on plant states apart from maturation were minimized.The suitability of canopy reflectance and derivative reflectance to draw conclusions on differences in qualitative species mixtures between the stands was tested with a classification approach (Spectral Angle Mapper, SAM). Procrustean randomization test (PROTEST), which is to our knowledge new to the field of remote sensing, was applied in combination with Isometric Feature Mapping to quantify the spectral variation caused by within-stand spatial variation in species proportions. Model fits in both analyses increased with progressing plant development; further, utilization of derivative reflectance improved the model fits. Regardless of the within-stand variation, SAM enabled a successful discrimination of the three stands with an average overall accuracy of 85% (reflectance) and 92% (derivative reflectance). In PROTEST analysis, spatial variation in reflectance was successfully related to within-stand variation in species proportions. However, observed influences of variable growth stages and health states on these relations were considerable. The temporal variation of these relations (r = 0.27-0.73 for reflectance and 0.48-0.73 for derivative reflectance) was quantified for the first time under controlled conditions.     

波段排序的高光谱影像3维混合树编码方法

目的 高光谱影像压缩的关键技术是对空间维和光谱维的去相关性。根据高光谱影像数据结构的特点,如何有效去除其空间相关性与谱间相关性是高光谱影像压缩中至关重要的问题。对高光谱影像进行编码时,3维小波变换是极为有效的去除冗余的方法。因此提出了一种通过波段排序并结合3维混合树型结构对高光谱影像3维小波变换系数进行编码的算法。方法 首先,将高光谱影像按照自然波段顺序进行波段分组,并对每组影像进行相邻影像的谱间相关性统计;其次,对相关性较弱的波段组,建立以影像波段序号为顶点、影像相关性系数为边的完全图,对这个完全图求其最大汉密尔顿回路。按照求得的最大汉密尔顿回路顺序对该波段组进行重新排序,从而提高波段组的谱间相关性;在此基础上,对重新排序后的波段组进行3维小波变换,并通过3维混合树结构对3维小波变换系数进行零树编码。结果 通过对大量AVIRIS型高光谱影像数据的仿真实验,验证了本文方法的有效性。对相关性较低的波段组,加入排序算法后,其解码影像与未排序时比,峰值信噪比有了一定的提高。通过实验统计,算法平均用时2.7579s。结论 由于采用了对弱相关性波段组的重新排序机制,使得基于混合树结构的3维零树编码出现了更多有效的零树,在一定程度上提高了编码效率。通过实验统计算法用时,表明该方法以较小的时间代价获得了解码效果的提升。     

高光谱数据特征选择与特征提取研究

高光谱遥感数据的最主要特点是: 传统图像维与光谱维信息融合为一体, 即“图谱合一”。针对高光谱数据波段多、数据量大、冗余度大等特点, 论述了特征选择和特征提取的若干算法, 分析了各自的优缺点。重点研究了导数光谱算法, 并针对二值编码的不足研究了其改进算法-- 四值编码算法。最后用编码技术和导数光谱技术提取了地物的光谱特征参数; 试验表明: 四值编码算法比二值编码算法效果更佳; 光谱导数阶数越高, 对地物特征的表达越有效。     

Conifer species recognition: Effects of data transformation

In situ hyperspectral data obtained with a high spectral resolution radiometer were analysed for identification of six conifer species. Hyperspectral data were measured in the summer and late fall seasons at 15-20 cm above portions of tree canopies from both the sunlit and shaded sides. An artificial neural network algorithm was applied for identification purposes. Six types of transformation were applied to the hyperspectral reflectance data ( R ), preprocessed with a simple smoothing, followed by band aggregation. These include log( R ), first derivative of R, first derivative of log( R ), normalized R, first derivative of normalized R, and log(normalized R ). First derivative of log( R ) and first derivative of normalized R resulted in best species recognition accuracies with greater than 90% average accuracies, more than 20% greater than the average accuracy obtained from the pre-processed hyperspectral data. The effect of hyperspectral data taken from the shade sides of tree canopies can be minimized by applying normalization or by taking the derivatives after applying a logarithm to the pre-processed data. We found that a big difference in solar angle did not cause a noticeable difference in accuracies of species recognition.     

浅析遥感光谱特征参量的原理及基本方法

概述了导数光谱、红边参数、光谱吸收特征以及光谱反射特征等遥感光谱特征参量的原理及基本方法,总结和分析了这些参量在植被领域中的应用动态,提出了遥感技术存在的问题及其应用展望,遥感光谱特征参量能够为植被理化信息的提取提供强有力的工具。     

Broadleaf species recognition with in situ hyperspectral data

Timely and accurate identification of tree species by spectral methods is crucial for forest and urban ecological management. In this study, a total of 394 reflectance spectra (between 350 and 2500 nm) from foliage branches or canopy of 11 important urban forest broadleaf species were measured in the City of Tampa, Florida, USA with a spectrometer. The 11 species include American elm (Ulmus americana), bluejack oak (Quercus incana), crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica), laurel oak (Q. laurifolia), live oak (Q. virginiana), southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), red maple (Acer rubrum), sand live oak (Q. geminata), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), and turkey oak (Q. laevis). A total of 46 spectral variables, including normalized spectra, derivative spectra, spectral vegetation indices, spectral position variables, and spectral absorption features were extracted and analysed from the in situ hyperspectral measurements. Two classification algorithms were used to identify the 11 broadleaf species: a nonlinear artificial neural network (ANN) and a linear discriminant analysis (LDA). An analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicates that the 30 selected spectral variables are effective to differentiate the 11 species. The 30 selected spectral variables account for water absorption features at 970, 1200, and 1750 nm and reflect characteristics of pigments and other biochemicals in tree leaves, especially variability of chlorophyll content in leaves. The experimental results indicate that both classification algorithms (ANN and LDA) have produced acceptable accuracies (overall accuracy from 86.3% to 87.8%, kappa from 0.83 to 0.87) and have a similar performance for classifying the 11 broadleaf species with input of the 30 selected spectral variables. The preliminary results of identifying the 11 species with the in situ hyperspectral data imply that with current remote sensing techniques, including high spatial and spectral resolution data, it is still difficult but possible to identify similar species to such 11 broadleaf species with an acceptable accuracy.     

高光谱遥感在生态系统研究中的应用进展

遥感技术在生态系统调查与研究中具有广阔的应用潜力,但是传统的多光谱遥感主要侧重在面上的普查,很难对生态系统中各种复杂地物属性和生化参量进行精确反演。高光谱遥感突破了光谱分辨率的限制,大大提高了人们获取多种生态系统模型输入参数的类型和精度。在阐述高光谱遥感的原理和信息特点的基础上,系统评述了目前国内外高光谱遥感在生态系统过程与属性研究中的应用,并对未来高光谱遥感在生态学领域的研究方向做出展望。      

森林树种高光谱波段的选择

高光谱是遥感技术发展的一个重要方向，也是地物识别的重要手段。本研究利用地物光谱仪对杉木、雪松、小叶樟树和桂花树4个树种进行高光谱数据测量，探索不同树种在不同波段上的识别能力。研究采用了逐步判别分析法和分层聚类法对实验数据进行数据分析。结果表明：逐步判别分析法选择的波段主要位于红、绿、蓝、和近红外区；分层聚类法选择的波段除了红、绿、蓝、和近红外波段外，还增加了蓝-绿边缘、绿-红边缘和红边区的波段。所选择的波段比原始波段在树种识别时具有更高的精度，最高识别精度达96．77％；边缘区波段对树种的识别有重要作用；用对数-微分变换处理较其他方法处理对树种识别有更好的效果。     

Airborne hyperspectral discrimination of tree species with different ages using discrete wavelet transform

In this article, the capability of discrete wavelet transform (DWT) to discriminate tree species with different ages using airborne hyperspectral remote sensing is investigated. The performance of DWT is compared against commonly used traditional methods, i.e. original reflectance and first and second derivatives. The hyperspectral data are obtained from Thetford forest of the UK, which contains Corsican and Scots pines with different ages and broadleaved tree species. The discrimination is performed by employing three different spectral measurement techniques (SMTs) including Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM), Spectral Information Divergence (SID), and a combination of SAM and SID. Five different mother wavelets with a total of 50 different orders are tested. The wavelet detail coefficient (CD) from each decomposition level and combination of all CDs plus the approximation coefficient from the final decomposition level (C-All) are extracted from each mother wavelet. The results show the superiority of DWT against the reflectance and derivatives for all the three SMTs. In DWT, C-All provided the highest discrimination accuracy compared to other coefficients. An overall accuracy difference of about 20–30% is observed between the finest coefficient and C-All. Amongst the SMTs, SID provided the highest accuracy, while SAM showed the lowest accuracy. Using DWT in combination with SID, an overall accuracy up to around 71.4% is obtained, which is around 13.5%, 14.7%, and 27% higher than the accuracies achieved with reflectance and first and second derivatives, respectively.     

A Review on Estimating Fractional Cover of Non-photosynthetic Vegetation by Using Remote Sensing

The quantitative estimation of fractional cover of photosynthetic vegetation(f PV),non-photosynthetic vegetation(f NPV),and bare soil(f BS) is critical for grassland ecosystem carbon storage,vegetation productivity,soil erosion and wildfire monitoring.The ecological importance of NPV has driven considerable research on quantitatively estimating NPV in diverse ecosystems including croplands,forests,grasslands savannah,and shrublands using remote sensing.This paper reviews the research progress in estimating f NPV using hyperspectral and multisspcetral remote sensing data,and hightlights discusses the theoretical bases of PV,NPV and BS spectral characteristics.based on the existing methods for estimating f NPV,this article groupd into two categories:empirical relationship between spectral index and NPV cover,and Spectral mixture analysis.Meanwhile,also discuss applications.of hyperspectral and multisspcetral remote sensing data.Finally,the existential problems and research trends for NPV estimation are analyzed.     

Comparative study between a new nonlinear model and common linear model for analysing laboratory simulated‐forest hyperspectral data

The spectral unmixing of mixed pixels is a key factor in remote sensing images, especially for hyperspectral imagery. A commonly used approach to spectral unmixing has been linear unmixing. However, the question of whether linear or nonlinear processes dominate spectral signatures of mixed pixels is still an unresolved matter. In this study, we put forward a new nonlinear model for inferring end‐member fractions within hyperspectral scenes. This study focuses on comparing the nonlinear model with a linear model. A detail comparative analysis of the fractions ‘sunlit crown’, ‘sunlit background’ and ‘shadow’ between the two methods was carried out through visualization, and comparing with supervised classification using a database of laboratory simulated‐forest scenes. Our results show that the nonlinear model of spectral unmixing outperforms the linear model, especially in the scenes with translucent crown on a white background. A nonlinear mixture model is needed to account for the multiple scattering between tree crowns and background.     

Shadow allometry: Estimating tree structural parameters using hyperspatial image analysis

We present a novel approach to generating regional scale aboveground biomass estimates for tree species of the Lake Tahoe Basin using hyperspatial (< 1 m² ground resolution) remote sensing imagery. Tree crown shadows were identified and delineated as individual polygons. The area of shadowed vegetation for each tree was related to two tree structural parameters, diameter-at-breast height (DBH) and crown area. We found we could detect DBH and crown area with reasonable accuracy (field measured to image derived cross correlation results were 0.67 and 0.77 for DBH and crown area, respectively). Furthermore, the counts of the delineated polygons in a region generated overstory stem densities validated to manually photointerpreted stem densities (photointerpreted vs. image-derived stem densities correlation was 0.87). We demonstrate with accurate classification maps and allometric equations relating DBH or crown area to biomass, that these crown-level parameters can be used to generate regional scale biomass estimates without the signal saturation common to coarse-scale optical and RADAR sensors.     

Multispectral and hyperspectral analysis and modelling of the absorbance characteristics of marine algal pigments

The techniques of remote sensing in spectral bands and hyperspectral remote sensing were modelled with laboratory experiments on marine algal pigments obtained from four species of green micro‐algae of the eastern coast of India. The spectral absorbance was measured within the visible range of wavelength for chlorophyll mixtures of different concentrations and also for chromatographically separated pigments. The intention was to simulate and compare the expected nature of results obtained with remote sensing in wavebands and hyperspectral sensing involving a fine resolution in wavelength. Therefore, the absorbance was measured both with filters of three different visible spectral bands, viz. blue, green, and red, and with a continuous scan of wavelength. The algal species were distinguishable with both types of measurements. However, the hyperspectral technique was found to be more suitable in revealing the individual contribution of pigments. Based on the experimental results, a computational model was developed with Gaussian variation of absorbance as a function of wavelength. The experimental results were simulated with that model explaining the comparative spectroscopic results obtained from band and hyperspectral sensing.     

Citrus Recognition Methods of Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Image based on Spectral Unmixing Model

In order to monitor the citrus planting information timely and accurately,We take Huichang County of Jiangxi Province as the research area,using EO\|1 Hypersion hyperspectral remote sensing (HRS)image as a datasource to build a citrus recognition methods of hyperspectral remote sensing image based on spectral unmixing.First of all,the EO\|1 Hyperion hyperspectral remote sensing image has 242 bands,and it has a wide spectrum rang.It can extract the spectral curve of typical objects in the study area,which is based on the image pre\|processing including the band selection,the atmospheric correction and so on.Then,we use the fully constrained linear spectral mixture model of spectral unmixing to decompose the mixed pixels of the image,and then extract the abundance value of citrus.Finally,we construct the relationship between citrus abundance and the actual cultivation of citrus based on the high resolution remote sensing image.The results indicated that the unavoidable error in the extraction of the typical objects and the differences of the citrus canopy coverage can lead to the corresponding relationship between the citrus plant accurate identification and the citrus abundance threshold value.Under the condition of repeated experiments,the study area of citrus abundance thresholds in the range of 0.30~0.45,the overall accuracy can reach more than 90%,and it can meet the requirements of identification of citrus.     

Classification of coniferous tree species and age classes using hyperspectral data and geostatistical methods

Classifications of coniferous forest stands regarding tree species and age classes were performed using hyperspectral remote sensing data (HyMap) of a forest in western Germany. Spectral angle mapper (SAM) and maximum likelihood (ML) classifications were used to classify the images. Classification was performed using (i) spectral information alone, (ii) spectral information and stem density, (iii) spectral and textural information, (iv) all data together, and results were compared. Geostatistical and grey level co‐occurrence matrix based texture channels were derived from the HyMap data. Variograms, cross variograms, pseudo‐cross variograms, madograms, and pseudo‐cross madograms were tested as geostatistical texture measures. Pseudo‐cross madograms, a newly introduced geostatistical texture measure, performed best. The classification accuracy (kappa) using hyperspectral data alone was 0.66. Application of pseudo‐cross madograms increased it to 0.74, a result comparable to that obtained with stem density information derived from high spatial resolution imagery.     

Coniferous tree species mapping using LANDSAT data

The identification and mapping of 12 surface-cover types within Crater Lake National Park, Oregon, including seven classes of coniferous tree species, has been accomplished through the use of LANDSAT digital data. The 12 surface-cover types were mapped with an average accuracy of 88.8%, as compared with detailed ground truth. The classification of the LANDSAT data was accomplished through use of the Interactive Digital Image Manipulation System (IDIMS) available at the EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The combined effects of a quantity and quality of ground truth, the use of the controlled clustering classification technique, and the prudent placement of Intensive Study Areas (ISA) on the image-processing CRT screen for training statistic collection provided very subtle spectral reflectance differences between coniferous tree species. Slope angle, slope aspect, and surface-cover type variation, and to a lesser degree, crown size, and crown density were the main environmental factors that accounted for spectral reflectance variation of surface-cover types within the park. Through an appreciation of the influence of environmental factors on the reflectance value of surface-cover types, and an appreciation for the placement of training areas to sample the environmental effects on reflectance, one can reduce misclassification or nonclassification possibilities.     

光谱微分技术在高光谱遥感浅海海底底质中的应用初探

采用光谱微分技术进行了高光谱遥感反演浅海海底底质的初步研究。首先,利用半分析海洋辐射传递模型模拟不同海底底质的光学浅水高光谱遥感反射比数据集;然后,利用光谱微分技术建立海底底质识别算法;最后利用水槽模拟数据来验证。结果表明本文建立的反演算法可以应用于泥砂类和植物类底质的区分。     

Tree species differentiation using intensity data derived from leaf-on and leaf-off airborne laser scanner data

Tree species identification is important for a variety of natural resource management and monitoring activities including riparian buffer characterization, wildfire risk assessment, biodiversity monitoring, and wildlife habitat assessment. Intensity data recorded for each laser point in a LIDAR system is related to the spectral reflectance of the target material and thus may be useful for differentiating materials and ultimately tree species. The aim of this study is to test if LIDAR intensity data can be used to differentiate tree species. Leaf-off and leaf-on LIDAR data were obtained in the Washington Park Arboretum, Seattle, Washington, USA. Field work was conducted to measure tree locations, tree species and heights, crown base heights, and crown diameters of individual trees for eight broadleaved species and seven coniferous species. LIDAR points from individual trees were identified using the field-measured tree location. Points from adjacent trees within a crown were excluded using a procedure to separate crown overlap. Mean intensity values of laser returns within individual tree crowns were compared between species. We found that the intensity values for different species were related not only to reflective properties of the vegetation, but also to a presence or absence of foliage and the arrangement of foliage and branches within individual tree crowns. The classification results for broadleaved and coniferous species using linear discriminant function with a cross validation suggests that the classification rate was higher using leaf-off data (83.4%) than using leaf-on data (73.1%), with highest (90.6%) when combining these two LIDAR data sets. The result also indicates that different ranges of intensity values between two LIDAR datasets didn't affect the result of discriminant functions. Overall results indicate that some species and species groups can be differentiated using LIDAR intensity data and implies the potential of combining two LIDAR datasets for one study.