Confectionery fats from palm oil

The influence of diglycerides (DG’s) and trisaturated glycerides (P-P-P) on tempering and the hardness of confectionery products are described. Palm oil and its processed products in confectionery fats have been reported (1,2). Palm oil contains a symmetric triglyceride (P-O-P) as a main component which has polymorphic changes similar to those of cocoa butter, so a mixture of these is able to use a tempering process similar to that used for cocoa butter. Details for fat crystals and polymorphism have been reported (3,4). Okada (5) used a mixture of tristearin and tripalmitin and studied the behavior of polymorphism using X-ray diffraction. The effects of DG’s on polymorphic change in palm oil also have been reported (6,7), and Okiy (8) suggested that DG’s have an inferior effect on the quality of palm oil when used in the solidified phase. However, there have not been many papers regarding how the above influence works in the production process or how it affects confectionery products. Palm oil contains about 10% trisaturated glycerides together with a few percent of mono- and diglycerides as minor components, which have been produced during the maturation of palm fruits and processing of fats. It is very difficult to eliminate these completely during the refining process. This paper reports a study of the influence of these minor components on tempering and hardness of products by using a simulated tempering machine. We have found that DG’s lower the temperature of tempering and soften the hardness of products and that P-P-P increased the viscosity of products during tempering process but increased the hardness of products very little.     

Hydrogenation of palm and lauric oils

The technology and equipment for hydrogenating fats and oils is described. Advantages and disadvantages of various batch and continuous processes are discussed. Continuous hydrogenation is suggested for plants that process essentially only one type of oil. When several different feedstocks are to be processed in the same equipment, batch autoclaves may be advantageous. Hydrogenated palm kernel and coconut oils or fractions have many uses in food products, especially in products where specific melting points and good oxidative stabilities are important. Trends in hydrogenation indicate that more and more energy-saving and automation devices will be used to reduce energy and labor costs and to make more uniform products, especially in batch processes.     

Ester content evaluation in biodiesel from animal fats and lauric oils

A modified method for the determination of ester contents of biodiesel based on EN 14103 has been developed. The method includes natural contents of heptadecanoic acid ester, which are found in animal fats and interfere with the standard method, into the calculation of ester content values. As a result, biodiesel samples prepared from waste animal fats and oils showed an increase in ester content between 2 and 7 wt‐% compared to values measured according to EN 14103. Furthermore, modifications of the GC temperature program made it possible to include also short‐chain fatty acid esters C₈–C₁₂, which can be found in coconut and palm kernel oil, into the calculation. Measurements showed that the ester content of such biodiesel differs by more than 40 wt‐% compared to EN 14103 determinations. However, also the stability of the internal standard solution methyl heptadecanoate influences the values of ester content. It can be demonstrated that after a period of 7 days, an ester content decrease of about 2 wt‐% can be observed. Therefore, the use of almost freshly prepared standard solutions should be recommended.     

Enzymatic interesterification of olive oil with fully hydrogenated palm oil: Characterization of fats

Seven different reaction products were prepared via enzymatic interesterification of extra‐virgin olive oil (EVOO) and fully hydrogenated palm oil (FHPO), by varying the initial weight ratio of EVOO to FHPO from 80 : 20 to 20 : 80. The chemical, physical and functional properties of both the semi‐solid reaction products and the corresponding physical blends of the precursor starting materials were characterized. Fats prepared using large proportions of FHPO contained high levels of TAG species containing only saturated fatty acid residues. By contrast, high levels of TAG species containing both saturated and unsaturated fatty acid residues were found in fat products obtained with the lowest proportions of FHPO. Independently of the initial weight ratio of EVOO to FHPO, the interesterified products were characterized by a higher molar ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acid residues at the sn‐2 position, were softer over a wide temperature range, exhibited lower oxidative stabilities and were completely melted at lower temperatures than the corresponding physical blends. Potential applications of the reaction products range from margarines (highest weight ratios of EVOO to FHPO) to frying fats (lowest weight ratios of EVOO to FHPO).     

Production of cocoa butter-like fats by the lipase-catalyzed interesterification of palm oil and hydrogenated soybean oil

Cocoa butter-like fats were prepared from refined, bleached, and deodorized palm oil (RBD-PO) and fully hydrogenated soybean oil (HSO) by enzymatic interesterification at various weight ratios of substrates. The cocoa butter-like fats were isolated from the crude interesterification mixture by fractional crystallization from acetone. Analysis of these fat products by RP-HPLC in combination with ELSD or MS detection showed that their TAG distributions were similar to that of cocoa butter but that they also contained MAG and DAG, which were removed by silica chromatography. The optimal weight ratio of RBD-PO to HSO found to produce a fat product containing the major TAG component of cocoa butter, namely, 1(3)-palmitoyl-3(1)-stearoyl-2-monoolein (POS), was 1.6∶1. The m.p. of this purified product as determined by DSC was comparable to the m.p. of cocoa butter, and its yield was 45% based on the weight of the original substrates.     

Pharmaceutical and cosmetic uses of palm and lauric products

The pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries are large and still growing. New products, astute marketing and sophisticated advertising have been very effective in these industries. They are more and more exacting and highly complex in their requirements. They require specification products with specific performance characteristics. The cosmetic industry and drug or pharmaceutical industries are defined. Information is given about the unique composition of palm and lauric oils which make them suitable raw materials for use in these applications. These two base oils are used in the form of triglycerides, whole fatty acids, fractionated fatty acids or fatty chemical derivatives. Information is given about these various ingredients, their use in specific cosmetic and pharmaceutical products and reasons for their use. Particular use is made of palmitic, stearic, myristic and short-chain fatty acids. The derivatives would include glycerine esters, monostearates, other monoglycerides, propylene glycol esters, polyglycerol esters, sorbitans and sorbitan ethylene oxide products, isopropyl palmitic and myristate. Specific powdered stearins and cocoa butter substitutes are used in various formulations. The production and marketing of ingredients for this industry are natural growths of the developing fatty acid industry in Malaysia and nearby countries of southeast Asia.     

Trends in industrial uses of palm and lauric oils

An attempt is being made to determine the importance of palm and lauric oil today and in the coming years of this decade whereby their industrial use in western Europe is considered outside the field of human and animal nutrition. The basic oleochemicals like fatty acids, fatty acid methyl esters, fatty alcohols and their most important derivatives are discussed as the essential products. Detergents are one of the most significant areas of application for basic oleochemicals and their derivatives. Changes in the application profiles of the final products are expected for the detergent industry in the coming years. These tendencies have been scrutinized with respect to their influence on future demand for palm and lauric oil. The competitiveness of natural oil-based oleochemicals versus ethylene-and paraffin-based synthetics is of great significance for the development of natural oils. It is attempted to elucidate the chances of natural oleochemicals in connection with petrochemical raw material developments.     

Polymorphism of palm oil and palm oil products

Palm oil, palm stearin, hydrogenated palm oil (IV 27.5) and hydrogenated palm olein (IV 28) were crystallized at 5°C, temperature cycled between 5 and 20°C, and kept isothermally at 5°C for 36 days. The polymorphic state of the fats was monitored by X-ray diffraction analysis. Soft laser scanning of X-ray films was used to establish the increase inβ crystal content. Palm stearin was least stable in theβ′ form, followed by palm oil. The hydrogenated oils were very stable in theβ′ form. Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) analysis was used to complement the X-ray data.     

应对月桂油的短缺

随着油脂化工生产的扩张,价格和基本原材料的获得是其成功的关键。月桂油（棕榈仁油和椰子油）对于油脂化学品的需求而言,在价格方面是最敏感的油品。目前月桂油主要用于食品方面,因此,油脂化工需求的增加必然导致月桂油的供应面临困难。月桂油的供应取决于椰子油和棕榈仁油的产量。油棕的产油率比椰棕高。很明显,将来月桂油供应主要取决于棕榈仁油生产的增加,这是棕榈油产量提高的结果。因此,为了提供充足的月桂油以满足油脂化学工业的需要,其用于食用方面的量将不得不减少。     

Confectionery fats. I. Preparation by interesterification and fractionation of pilot-plant scale

A cocoa butter-like fat has been prepared on a pilot plant scale by the interesterification of hydrogenated cottonseed oil and a triolein product or olive oil followed by fractional crystallization from acetone at two different temperatures. The coproducts—a fraction which consists primarily of trisaturates and is obtained by fractionation at 20 to 28°C., and a fraction which is primarily di- and triunsaturates and is obtained from the low temperature (0°C.) filtrate—are reused in the process. In five of the six pilot plant runs conducted, 100 pounds of 70∶30 or 75∶25 mixtures of the hard fat and liquid oil were used as starting materials. In the sixth run, 140 pounds were used. Yields varied from 25 to 35%. Characteristics of the cocoa butter-like fat products are discussed. Variations in the products were made by changing the ratio of starting materials to 75∶25 and by lowering the first crystallization temperature from about 28° to about 19°C. Operational data obtained show that the process has commerical feasibility. Solvent-to-fat ratio was only 4 to 1. Filtration rates based on production of dry solids were 9 to 44 pounds per hour per square foot of filter area, respectively, for the first and second crystallizations. Although time to attain crystallization temperature was about 4 hours in the pilot plant oeprations, laboratory data indicate that comparable products can be obtained for crystallization times as low as one-half hour. The shorter crystallization time would be more applicable for commercial consideration. The steps in the process are considered conventional in commercial processing.     

Recovery of carotenoids from palm oil

The carotenoids from palm oil were recovered through a two-stage process involving transesterification of palm oil followed by molecular distillation of the ester. The carotenoid fraction contained more than 80,000 ppm carotenoids. α- and β-Carotenes were the major components. Vitamin E and sterols were also present.     

Production of palm oil from fruit

Palm oil is obtained from the fruit flesh ofElaeas guineensis. Whole bunches of ripe fruit are harvested and brought to the oil mill. Processing involves sterilization, mechanical removal of fruit from the bunch, and mechanical breakdown of the fruit structure followed by expression of the oil in a screw press. Oil mixed with water and fruit debris is purified in settling tanks and centrifuges, dried and stored. Oil yield represents 22% of the fresh fruit bunch and kernels a further 5%. The solid wastes are the empty fruit bunch, the press fiber and the nut shells. Empty bunches are incinerated, while fiber and shell are used to fire the mill boilers. The liquid effluents are mixed and usually treated by anaerobic/aerobic fermentation until fit for discharge. Various treatment systems are described. Quality control in the oil mill concentrates on (a) minimizing deterioration of the oil by hydrolysis and by oxidation, and (b) optimizing oil yield by frequent measurements of oil losses.     

Confectionery fats. II. Characterization of products prepared by interesterification and fractionation

Several cocoa butter-like fats, which had been prepared by fractional crystallization of the reaction product obtained on interesterifying highly-hydrogenated cottonseed oil and a triolein product or olive oil, were characterized and compared with cocoa butter. The fats, as obtained by fractional crystallization from acetone solutions, contained varying amounts of glycerides melting above 37°C., an undesirable feature which caused the fats to thicken too much when used in chocolate type compositions under the same conditions employed with cocoa butter. The higher-melting glycerides could be removed by filtration, or their proportions could be decreased by changing the fractionation temperatures. The fats melted mostly over the same temperature range associated with cocoa butter, and the best of the fats resembled cocoa butter closely over the temperature range 0° to 30°C. The cocoa butter-like fats resembled cocoa butter in hardness at all test temperatures. The fats were reasonably compatible with cocoa butter, that is, in mixtures of the two, one did not cause extensive premelting of the other. According to their cooling curves, the cocoa butter-like fats did not supercool as cocoa butter does. The former contain not only the 2-oleodisaturated glycerides of cocoa butter but also positional isomers of these glycerides. When the fats were molded under the same conditions employed with cocoa butter, linear shrinkage was only about one-third that of cocoa butter.     

Trans‐free fats through interesterification of canola oil/palm olein or fully hydrogenated soybean oil blends

Binary blends of canola oil (CO) and palm olein (POo) or fully hydrogenated soybean oil (FHSBO) were interesterified using commercial lipase, Lypozyme TL IM, or sodium methoxide. Free fatty acids (FFA) and soap content increased and peroxide value (PV) decreased after enzymatic or chemical interesterification. No difference was observed between the PV of enzymatically and chemically interesterified blends. Enzymatically interesterified fats contained higher FFA and lower soap content than chemically prepared fats. Slip melting point (SMP) and solid‐fat content (SFC) of CO and POo blends increased, whereas those of CO and FHSBO blends decreased after chemical or enzymatic interesterification. Enzymatically interesterified CO and POo blends had lower SMP and SFC (at some temperatures) than chemically interesterified blends. The status was reverse when comparing chemically and enzymatically interesterified CO and FHSBO blends. The induction period for oxidation at 120°C of blends decreased after interesterification. However, chemically interesterified blends were more oxidatively stable than enzymatically interesterified blends. Interesterified blends of CO and POo or FHSBO displayed characteristics suited to application as trans‐free soft tub, stick, roll‐in and baker's margarine, cake shortening and vanaspati fat.     

Chemical and physical characteristics of soap made from distilled fatty acids of palm oil and palm kernel oil

Manufacture of soaps from distilled fatty acids of palm oil (PO) and palm kernel oil (PK) is a well-established technology in Malaysia. Data on quality and characteristics of various blends of PO/PK fatty acid-based (palm-based) soaps made in Malaysia are not available, however. In view of this, the study described in this paper was undertaken. Eleven blends of palm-based bar soaps were made, and their properties were evaluated. There was an increase in the acid value of blended raw materials with increasing amounts of PK fatty acids. The iodine value and titer (°C) of blended raw materials, however, bear an inverse relationship with the amount of PK fatty acids. As expected, the hardness of the soap bars from the various blends increased with increasing PK fatty acid. Total fatty matter ranged from 76–85%, free caustic content was 0.1%, and sodium chloride content was 0.3–0.4%. Characteristics of soap blends made for this study were comparable with those from other countries. Quality of the soap obtained was comparable to those produced commercially.     

Synthesis of civetone from palm oil products

Metathesis of ethyl oleate, catalyzed by WCl₆ and SnMe₄, provided diethyl 9-octadecenedioate (the desired starting material for the synthesis of civetone) in 99% yield. Dieckmann condensation of diethyl 9-octadecenedioate gave 2-ethoxycarbonyl-9-cycloheptadecenone (63% yield), the hydrolysis-decarboxylation reaction of which yielded civetone (93%). Identification of all products was by¹H nuclear magnetic resonance, infrared and mass spectroscopic data. This is the first report of the synthesis of civetone from palm oil-derived products.     

Removal of suspended solids and residual oil from palm oil mill effluent

Palm oil mill effluent (POME) was pretreated to remove suspended solids and residual oil. The processes used were flocculation, solvent extraction, adsorption and membrane separation. Flocculation was used to remove suspended solids, and solvent extraction and adsorption processes were used to remove residual oil. Membrane separation was subsequently applied to remove any residual suspended solids and oil remaining after the pretreatments. The solvent extraction and adsorption processes were operated on a batch basis whereas membrane separation was performed in continuous mode. The treatment efficiency of the processes was measured as percentage removal of suspended solids and oil respectively. The optimum values of the process parameters obtained in the flocculation process were an alum dosage of 4000 mg dm^?3, mixing speed of 150 rpm for 1 h and sedimentation time of 270 min, resulting in 93% suspended solids removal. In the solvent extraction process, a 95% reduction in residual oil was obtained using n‐hexane as a solvent with 20 min of mixing at 200 rpm. The ratio of solvent to POME was 6:10 and carried out at pH 9. In the batch adsorption process, an 88% reduction in residual oil was obtained at a mixing speed of 100 rpm for 1 h, pH 9 and an adsorbent dosage of 300 g dm^?3. In membrane separation processes, GH and CE(GH) membranes gave 63% and 49% reductions in suspended solids and residual oil respectively at pH 9 and pressure of 1000 kPa. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Soap and related products: Palm and lauric oil

There are three main methods for producing soap: direct saponification of fats and oils, neutralization of fatty acids and saponification of fatty acid methyl esters. Our unique process of soapmaking, based on the methyl ester saponification method, is described here. By this process, high-quality toilet soaps can be produced from palm stearin and palm kernel oil as well as tallow and coconut oil. A new sulfonation process was developed to produce high-quality α-SFMe (α-sulfo fatty acid methyl ester) from palm stearin as the starting material. Quality and performance of α-SFMe bear comparison with those of LAS, AES, AS or AOS. Thus α-SFMe is a promising surfactant for detergents and will contribute to expanding the use of palm oil in the near future.