Body image and eating disorder symptoms in sexual minority men: A test and extension of objectification theory.

On the basis of integrating objectification theory research with research on body image and eating problems among sexual minority men, the present study examined relations among sociocultural and psychological correlates of eating disorder symptoms with a sample of 231 sexual minority men. Results of a path analysis supported tenets of objectification theory with the sample. Specifically, findings were consistent with relations posited in objectification theory among sexual objectification experiences, internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms. Within this set of positive relations, internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness partially mediated the link of sexual objectification experiences with body surveillance; body surveillance partially mediated the relation of internalization with body shame; and body shame partially mediated the relation of body surveillance with eating disorder symptoms. In addition to these relations, internalized homophobia was related to greater eating disorder symptoms through body shame, and recalled childhood harassment for gender nonconformity was linked with eating disorder symptoms through a positive series of relations involving internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, and body shame. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A test and extension of objectification theory as it predicts disordered eating: Does women's age matter?

When predicting disordered eating, models incorporating several of objectification theory's (B. L. Fredrickson & T. A. Roberts, 1997) core constructs (i.e., sexual objectification, self-objectification, body shame, poor interoceptive awareness) have been empirically supported with women of traditional undergraduate age who are consistent in age with the youthful-ideal prototype for women presented in the media. The present study extended this research by testing these core constructs with women ages 25–68 years (n = 330), as their experiences with these constructs may differ as they deviate from this youthful prototype. A multiple-groups analysis comparing these women with women ages 18–24 (n = 329) indicated that objectification theory can be extended to women ages 25 and older, as the model provided an adequate fit to the data. However, structural invariance analysis revealed that what takes place within the model may not be identical for these groups. The older group had a stronger relationship between body shame and disordered eating and a weaker relationship between poor interoceptive awareness and disordered eating than did the younger group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Objectification theory and deaf cultural identity attitudes: Roles in deaf women's eating disorder symptomatology.

This study examined the generalizability of direct and mediated links posited in objectification theory among internalization of sociocultural standards of beauty, body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms with a sample of Deaf women. The study also examined the role of marginal Deaf cultural identity attitudes within this framework. Data from 177 Deaf women indicated positive relations among internalization, body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptomatology. Consistent with tenets of objectification theory, body shame mediated the links of internalization and body surveillance with eating disorder symptoms. In addition, marginal Deaf identity attitudes (but not hearing, immersion, or bicultural attitudes) were linked uniquely with eating disorder constructs and had significant indirect relations through internalization with body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms. Implications for practice and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic and age differences in eating disorder symptomatology among Albertan women.

Ethnic and age differences in body mass index (BMI), body shame, and eating disorder symptomatology were investigated in a representative, nonclinical sample (N = 601) of women from the Province of Alberta. Women reported ethnicity (White, Hispanic, Aboriginal, Asian), age, height, and weight (used to calculate BMI), and items measuring body shame and eating disorder symptomatology. Strong ethnic differences were observed. Aboriginal women reported significantly higher BMI than Hispanic and Asian women. Hispanic women reported higher body shame than White women. Hispanic women also reported more bulimic behaviour than White, Aboriginal, and Asian women. White women reported lower body satisfaction than Asian and Aboriginal women. Aboriginal women reported the highest body satisfaction. Bulimic behaviour was lowest in older women (65+ years) compared with other age groups. Body satisfaction was greatest in older women (65+ years). These study findings have important implications for theory, research, and practise, as our society continues to place an inordinate value on thinness and beauty as ideals for women and girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exploring a model of intuitive eating with college women.

Intuitive eating (i.e., eating based on physiological hunger and satiety cues rather than situational and emotional cues) recently has gained recognition as an adaptive eating style. The present study explored a model of intuitive eating based on a foundation of acceptance with 2 samples of college women. Path analysis with the 1st sample (N = 181) revealed that the acceptance model provided an excellent fit to the data, and latent variable structural equation modeling with the 2nd sample (N = 416) cross-validated this model. Specifically, general unconditional acceptance predicted body acceptance by others, body acceptance by others predicted an emphasis on body function over appearance, body acceptance by others and an emphasis on body function predicted body appreciation, and an emphasis on body function and body appreciation predicted intuitive eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Roles of Sexual Objectification Experiences and Internalization of Standards of Beauty in Eating Disorder Symptomatology: A Test and Extension of Objectification Theory.

This study extends the literature on eating disorder symptomatology by testing, based on extant literature on objectification theory (B. L. Fredrickson & T. Roberts, 1997) and the role of sociocultural standards of beauty (e.g., L. J. Heinberg, J. K. Thompson, & S. Stormer, 1995), a model that examines (a) links of reported sexual objectification experiences to eating disorder-related variables and (b) the mediating roles of body surveillance, body shame, and internalization of sociocultural standards of beauty. Consistent with hypotheses, with a sample of 221 young women, support was found for a model in which (a) internalization of sociocultural standards of beauty mediated the links of sexual objectification experiences to body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms, (b) body surveillance was an additional mediator of the link of reported sexual objectification experiences to body shame, and (c) body shame mediated the links of internalization and body surveillance to disordered eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of body image threat on smoking motivation among college women: Mediation by negative affect.

A recent experimental study found that activation of negative body image cognitions produced urges to smoke in young women (E. N. Lopez, D. J. Drobes, J. K. Thompson, & T. H. Brandon, 2008). This study intended to replicate and extend these experimental findings by examining the role of negative affect as a mediator of the relationship between body dissatisfaction and smoking urges. Female college smokers (N = 133) were randomly assigned to a body image challenge (trying on a bathing suit) or a control condition (evaluating a purse). State levels of urge to smoke, mood, and body dissatisfaction were assessed both pre- and postmanipulation. Trying on a bathing suit increased body dissatisfaction and reported urges to smoke, particularly those urges related to reducing negative affect. Additionally, state negative affect mediated the relationship between the body image manipulation and smoking urge. This study provides additional support, through an experimental design, that situational challenges to body image influence smoking motivation and that this effect occurs, at least in part, through increases in negative affect. Theoretical and applied implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Body image dissatisfaction among women with scleroderma: Extent and relationship to psychosocial function.

Body image dissatisfaction and its relationship to psychosocial function were investigated in 127 women with scleroderma. Results indicated elevated body image dissatisfaction, with participants reporting higher levels than a sample of patients with severe burn injuries. Age, skin tightening above the elbows, and functional disability were related to heightened body image dissatisfaction, suggesting that younger patients with more severe disease may be at greatest risk for developing body image concerns. Path analysis revealed that depression mediated the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and psychosocial function. Results suggest that body image dissatisfaction is a significant concern in women with scleroderma and should be assessed routinely. Early identification and treatment of body image dissatisfaction may help prevent the development of depression and psychosocial impairment in this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction among women in the United States: A meta-analysis.

The prevailing view in popular culture and the psychological literature is that White women have greater body dissatisfaction than women of color. In this meta-analysis, 6 main effect sizes were obtained for differences among Asian American, Black, Hispanic, and White women with a sample of 98 studies, yielding 222 effect sizes. The average d for the White-Black comparison was 0.29, indicating that White women are more dissatisfied, but the difference is small. All other comparisons were smaller, and many were close to zero. The findings directly challenge the belief that there are large differences in dissatisfaction between White and all non-White women and suggest that body dissatisfaction may not be the golden girl problem promoted in the literature. Implications for theory and treatment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential social comparison processes in women with and without eating disorder symptoms.

On the basis of predictions from social comparison theory (L. Festinger, 1954) and informed by findings from the social comparison and eating disorder literatures, hypotheses were tested regarding the social comparison behaviors of women with eating disorder symptoms and their asymptomatic peers. Results indicated differentiating social-cognitive processes for these groups. First, a greater tendency to engage in everyday social comparison predicted the presence of eating disorder symptoms. Second, social comparisons of one's own body to images of other women's bodies using a range of shapes and sizes also differentiated these 2 groups, with more self-defeating self-appraisals predicting the presence of eating disorder symptoms. Finally, self-esteem partially mediated the relationship between body-related social comparisons and eating disorder symptom status. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for research and practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and structure of the body image, Volumes 1 and 2.

Volume 1 consists entirely of an updated review of the body image literature, particularly work reported since Fisher's 1970 review. Most of these studies were carried out by investigators other then Fisher himself. He reserves presentation of his own recent research for the second volume. Volume 2 contains two parts. The first 200-plus pages describe Fisher's theory of the body boundary in considerable detail. The remainder describes new research findings regarding the body-landmark signal system and the significance of variations in the prominence of body experience. Several appendixes describe the coding criteria for body image Barrier and Penetration scores, the Body Focus Questionnaire, and the Body Prominence technique. The 150-page Bibliography and the Author and Subject Indexes are quite thorough and helpful. Fisher uses Volume 2 to elaborate empirically and theoretically two postulates that appeared in his earlier writings. The first postulate is that some persons view their body as being sharply bounded while others are less well differentiated from their environments. The second holds hat people distribute attention differentially to specific body parts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of weight control and weight control plus body image therapy for obese men and women.

Participants were 65 obese men and women who were randomly assigned to either weight control or weight control plus cognitive–behavioral body image therapy. Both conditions showed clinically significant improvements in body image at posttreatment and 1-year follow-up. Adding body image therapy to weight control did not result in greater psychological improvements and did not result in better maintenance of body image change when participants regained weight after treatment. Weight loss and maintenance were equivalent between groups. Adding body image therapy did not improve or detract from weight loss. Although body image therapy has been shown to be effective in obese persons, it appears that a well-rounded cognitive–behavioral weight control program is effective as well. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Male and female body image and dieting in the context of intimate relationships.

The influence of family and peers on dieting and body image is well known, but, despite the centrality of romantic partnerships in the lives of adults, little research has investigated dieting and body image in the context of intimate relationships. This study investigated unhealthy dieting (e.g., skipping meals, vomiting), healthy dieting (e.g., reducing calories, reducing or eliminating snacks), and body satisfaction in intimate relationships in 57 predominantly unmarried couples, who were recruited in a college setting. The within-participant findings replicated prior research showing that women with higher self-esteem and lower depressive symptoms were more satisfied with their own bodies and dieted less. Controlling for body mass index and the relevant self-perceptions of each partner, the across-partner associations showed that men who had more depressive symptoms and were less satisfied with their relationships had female partners who dieted more and were less satisfied with their bodies. In contrast, men dieted more when their female partners had higher self-esteem and fewer depressive symptoms. These results suggest that psychological processes in intimate relationships are linked with dieting and body satisfaction but that these links are different for men and for women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correlates of body image dissatisfaction among overweight women seeking weight loss.

Predictors of body image dissatisfaction (BID) among obese people are poorly understood. In 79 obese women seeking weight reduction, associations with BID of self-esteem, youth teasing, adult teasing, and internalization of sociocultural appearance standards (ISAS) were studied. Analyses revealed that only self-esteem, adult teasing, and ISAS predicted BID. Results highlight the importance of adulthood self-esteem and interpersonal--cultural context--rather than childhood experiences--in predicting adulthood BID. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural strengths as moderators of the relationship between acculturation to the mainstream U.S. Society and eating- and body-related concerns among Mexican American women.

This study explored whether 3 culturally relevant variables (i.e., ethnic identity, familism, and enculturation) operated as sources of strength for 209 Mexican American women by buffering the relationship between their acculturation to the mainstream U.S. society and eating- and body-related concerns. In an effort to capture the underlying dimensions of women’s eating- and body-related concerns, the authors used principal components analysis to identify 3 components: control concerns, restricted eating, and body dissatisfaction. As hypothesized, results from a series of hierarchical regressions suggested familism significantly buffered the links between acculturation to the mainstream U.S. society and all 3 eating- and body-related variables. However, enculturation did not moderate the associations, and ethnic identity moderated only the link between acculturation and restricted eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies.

Research suggests that exposure to mass media depicting the thin-ideal body may be linked to body image disturbance in women. This meta-analysis examined experimental and correlational studies testing the links between media exposure to women's body dissatisfaction, internalization of the thin ideal, and eating behaviors and beliefs with a sample of 77 studies that yielded 141 effect sizes. The mean effect sizes were small to moderate (ds = -.28, -.39, and -.30, respectively). Effects for some outcome variables were moderated by publication year and study design. The findings support the notion that exposure to media images depicting the thin-ideal body is related to body image concerns for women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Body dissatisfaction, ethnic identity, and disordered eating among African American women.

Initial research suggested that only European American women developed eating disorders (Garner, 1993), yet recent studies have shown that African American women do experience them (e.g., Lester & Petrie, 1998b; Mulholland & Mintz, 2001) and also may be negatively affected by similar sociocultural variables. In this study, we examined a sociocultural model of eating disorders for African American women but included the influences of ethnic identity (e.g., Hall, 1995; Helms, 1990). Participants (N = 322) were drawn from 5 different universities. They completed measures representing ethnic identity, societal pressures regarding thinness, internalization of societal beauty ideals, body image concerns, and disordered eating. Structural equation modeling revealed that ethnic identity was inversely, and societal pressures regarding thinness directly, related to internalization of societal beauty ideals. Societal pressures regarding thinness was also related to greater body image concerns. Both internalization of societal beauty ideals and body image concerns were positively associated with disordered eating (R2 = .79). Overall, the final model fit the data well, supporting its generalizability and the importance of ethnic identity in determining risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

His biceps become him: A test of objectification theory's application to drive for muscularity and propensity for steroid use in college men.

Men's body image problems may manifest as an unhealthy drive for muscularity and propensity to use anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS). Aspects of objectification theory were integrated with literature on men's drive for muscularity and AAS use to identify correlates of these problems. The resultant model was tested with path analyses of data from 270 college men. First, consistent with prior research on objectification theory, results indicated that body surveillance partially mediated the link of internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness with body shame. Second, positive outcome expectation for AAS use partially mediated the link of drive for muscularity with intention to use AAS. Third, drive for muscularity partially mediated the links of internalization with outcome expectation for AAS use and intention to use AAS. Finally, outcome expectation for AAS use was an additional partial mediator of the link of internalization with intention to use AAS. Body surveillance and body shame did not have unique direct or mediated relations with drive for muscularity or AAS variables. These findings point to internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness as the nexus of overlap between the objectification theory variables and men's drive for muscularity and propensity to use AAS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

High- and low-level dissonance-based eating disorder prevention programs with young women with body image concerns: An experimental trial.

Objective: As cognitive dissonance is theorized to contribute to the effects of dissonance-based eating disorder prevention programs, we evaluated a high-dissonance version of this program against a low-dissonance version and a wait-list control condition to provide an experimental test of the mechanism of intervention effects. Method: Female college students (N = 124, mean age = 20.9 years, SD = 3.9) with body image concerns were randomized to the 3 conditions. The high-dissonance program was designed to maximize dissonance induction, and the low-dissonance program was designed to minimize it; the substantive content of the 2 programs was matched. Results: Relative to controls, those in the high-dissonance condition showed significantly greater reductions in thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, dieting, and eating disorder symptoms by posttest, and those in the low-dissonance condition showed significantly greater reductions in the first 3 outcomes by posttest, with most of these effects persisting to 3-month follow-up. High-dissonance participants showed significantly greater reductions in eating disorder symptoms than low-dissonance participants did by posttest, but this effect was nonsignificant by 3-month follow-up. Conclusions: Results suggest that dissonance induction contributes to intervention effects but imply that the intervention content, nonspecific factors, and demand characteristics play a much more potent role in producing effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The thin ideal and body image: An experimental study of implicit attitudes.

Thin-ideal internalization is a core construct in body dissatisfaction, central to eating disorders and generally assessed with explicit measures. To compare implicit and explicit measures of thin-ideal internalization and their relationship to body image, the authors developed a thin-ideal implicit association test (IAT). Although the IAT revealed a strong cognitive bias toward fat as negative (differences in response latencies: t[85]=9.829, p