Carbohydrates and fiber

Dietary carbohydrates comprise two fractions that may be classified as digestible, and which are useful as energy sources (simple and complex carbohydrates) and fiber, which is presumed to be of no use to the human body. There are insufficient epidemiologic data on the metabolic effects of simple carbohydrates and it is not advisable to make quantitative recommendations of intake. It is questionable to recommend in developing countries that a fixed proportion of dietary energy be derived from simple sugars, due to the high prevalence of deficient energy intake, cultural habits, and regional differences in food intake and physical activity. In relation to recommendations of complex carbohydrates, it should be considered that their absorption is influenced by many factors inherent to the individual and to the foods. Fiber is defined as a series of different substances derived from tissue structures, cellular residues and undigested chemical substances that may be partially utilized after intestinal bacteria have acted on them. There is not a clear definition of the chemical composition of fiber, but it consists mainly of polysaccharides (such as cellulose, hemicellulose and pectins), lignin and end products of the interactions of various food components. The effects of fiber, such as control of food intake, regulation of gastrointestinal transit, post-prandial blood concentrations of cholesterol, glucose and insulin, flatulence and alterations in nutrient bioavailability are due to various physical properties inherent to its chemical components. Impairment of nutrient absorption may be harmful, mainly among populations whose food intake is lower than their energy needs, and with a high fiber content. This may be particularly important in pregnant women, growing children and the elderly, and should be considered when making nutrient recommendations. A precise knowledge of fiber is also important to calculate the real energy value of foods, mainly for two reasons: 1) the proportion of "crude fiber" (as measured by acid and alkaline digestion) leads to an over-estimation of the proportion of digestible carbohydrates calculated by difference; 2) fiber may alter the polysaccharide utilization of some foods, as shown by the "glycemic index". It is difficult to make recommendations on dietary fiber due to insufficient data on intake, fiber composition, its physiological effects, and epidemiological studies. However, a preliminary evaluation of the diets from most Latin American countries shows large intakes of vegetable foods and, consequently, an adequate fiber intake may be expected.     

Food intake of students graduating from basic education in the metropolitan area of Santiago, Chile

This study pursued to evaluate the adequacy of the dietary intake of students graduating from Basic Education in the Metropolitan Area of Santiago, Chile. A random sample of 258 students from public and non-public schools (1:1), of both sexes (1:1) and from high, medium and low socioeconomic level (SEL) (1:1:1), was selected. Standard procedures for 24-hr dietary recall individual interviews were used to collect data. The students' dietary intake was then compared with the FAO/WHO 1973 Recommended Dietary Allowances. Results revealed that 53.5% and 62.0% of the sample registered a deficient and excessive intake for energy and protein, respectively. Protein contributed 13.2% of the dietary energy, fat, 27.1%, and carbohydrates, 59.8%. Animal and vegetable protein intake was found in the proportion of 1:1. As findings indicated, the dietary intake of students differed significantly according to SEL. Deficiencies in energy, vitamin A, riboflavin, niacin and calcium intake were observed, in both sexes, besides iron deficiency in the female group. It is considered that results could be useful for food and nutrition planning in school feeding programs.     

Food consumption patterns of children 4 to 14 years old in Valencia, Venezuela

Results from a nutritional assessment are presented to establish the usual food consumption pattern of 438 children between 4-14 years of age, from a low income urban community in Valencia, Venezuela. Food intake data were collected through multiple 24 hours recalls and converted to individual food item weight in grams. Amounts of energy, macronutrients, iron, calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin C were estimated to compare them to national references. The food pattern was established according to intake frequency per food item and per food groups. Arepa was the most commonly consumed food item, and a main source of kilocalories, protein, carbohydrates, iron, and vitamin A. Unlike coffee, fruits were not among the most commonly consumed foods. Black beans were the main source of protein. Cookies and sodas were among the major sources of energy. Energy and nutrient intake were adequate, except for calcium (67% in preschoolers y 43% in school-aged children). Preschoolers' diet showed a better adequacy for all nutrients (p < 0.005), except for iron which was significantly higher in school-aged children. Since children below 15 years old are still forming food behaviors and habits, they are an ideal group to develop nutritional education strategies to modify harmful patterns such as high intake of sodas, and low intakes of calcium rich foods.     

Trans Fatty Acid Intakes and Food Sources in the U.S. Population: NHANES 1999–2002

Because of efforts to decrease trans fatty acids (TFA) in the food supply, intake should be assessed in the population to establish a baseline TFA intake. The 1999?C2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was used to identify a benchmark for TFA intake. TFA was estimated by mean, median, and quintile of intake, TFA intake data were weighted using the NHANES 4-year sample weights. The main outcome measures included TFA intake in grams per day and percentage of energy in the top 25 food sources of TFA. Data are reported for 16,669 individuals ??3 years of age. Median TFA intake was 2.3?% of calories (5?g/day) with 0.9?C4.5?% of energy (1.5?C13.1?g/day) over different quintiles of intake. Mean TFA intake was 2.5?% of energy (6.1?g/day). The range of TFA intake in the fifth quintile was very large, i.e., 3.5?C12.5?% of energy or 8.8?C92.4?g/day. Increasing quintiles of TFA intake were associated with increases in total fat (26.7?C37.6?% of energy), saturated fat (7.6?C10.5?% of energy), and calories (for those >20?years of age: 2,416?C2,583 for men and 1,679?C1,886 for women). Major food sources of dietary TFA were cakes, cookies, pies, and pastries. Based on current dietary guidance to consume as little industrial TFA as possible, much progress is needed to attain this goal, including food industry efforts to remove TFA from the food supply and educating the public about making healthy food choices.     

Validation of digital photographs, as a tool in 24-h recall, for the improvement of dietary assessment among rural populations in developing countries

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Improvement of traditional methods for dietary assessment is necessary, especially in rural areas where it is more difficult to succeed with self-reporting methods. This study presents and validates a method for improving accuracy when measuring food and nutrient intake of individuals in rural areas. It is called the "Food photography 24-h recall method" (FP 24-hR) and is a modified 24-h recall with the addition of a digital food photography record and a photo atlas. METHODS: The study was carried out in a rural area in the tropical region of Bolivia; 45 women participated. Validation of the method was made by comparing it with a reference method, the Weighed Food Record (WFR). During the FP 24-hR, digital photographs were taken by the subjects of all food consumed during a day and a 24-h recall questionnaire was conducted by an interviewer. An estimate of the amount of food consumed was made using a photo atlas and the photographs taken by the subjects. For validation, comparison was made between the calculations, by both methods, of the levels of food, and nutrient, intake. RESULTS: The comparison was made in 10 food categories; most of which were somewhat underestimated from [MINUS SIGN]2.3% (cassava) to [MINUS SIGN]6.8% (rice), except for beverages (+1.6%) and leafy vegetables (+8.7%), which were overestimated. Spearman's correlation coefficients were highly significant (r from 0.75 for eggs to 0.98 for potato and cassava). Nutrient intakes calculated with data from both methods showed small differences from -0.90% (vitamin C) to -5.98% (fat). Although all nutrients were somewhat underestimated, Pearson[ACUTE ACCENT]s coefficients are high (>0.93 for all) and statistically significant. Bland Altman analysis showed that differences between both methods were random and did not exhibit any systematic bias over levels of food and nutrient intake, with acceptable 95% limits of agreement. CONCLUSION: The FP 24-hR exhibits acceptable differences when compared with a WFR, digital photos are useful as a memory aid for the subjects during 24-h recall and as an estimation tool. The method is suitable for assessing dietary intake among rural populations in developing countries.     

Pre-cooked corn flour intake and its contribution of iron and vitamin A in low income preschoolers

The objective of this study was to determine whether the addition of iron and vitamin A (VA) to corn flour, supplied through a national enrichment program since 1993, allows preschoolers to achieve an adequate intake of these nutrients. Data from the assessment of 196 children (4-6 year old) from Valencia, Venezuela is presented, including socio-demographic, anthropometric, anemia, VA deficiency (by conjunctival impression cytology (CIC) and serum retinol), and food intake. 92% of the children lived in poverty. 12% were below the norm for weight-for-height. 13% had anemia, 9% had VA deficiency according to CIC, and 0.5% according to serum retinol (< 0.70 mumol/L), 30% were at risk of VA deficiency (0.70-1.05 mmol/L). 17%, 37%, and 5% of the sample had an insufficient intake (< 80% of RDA) of energy, iron, and VA, respectively. When excluding from the analysis the amount of iron and VA from corn flour enrichment, an additional 38% and 10% of the sample showed deficient intakes of each nutrient, respectively. According to the weight-for-height indicator, iron intake was significantly lower in undernourished children (p < 0.05) than in those normal or above the norm; this was not so for VA. It is concluded that iron enrichment contributes to the improvement of the intake of this nutrient but is not enough to provide an adequate amount of it; and that the addition of VA does not seem to have an important effect on the diet of this age group.     

Food habits and the apparent nature and extent of dietary nutritional deficiencies in the Peruvian Andes

Food patterns, and energy and nutrient intake of a sample of rural and urban families in the Peruvian Andes are analyzed and compared with requirements and recommended figures of nutrient allowances. It is concluded that, with the exception of vitamin A, there is very little nutrient deficiency where calorie requirements are met. About half the population in the region suffers from some degree of calorie deficiency in the sense that the total quantity of food available to the family is insufficient to satisfy energy needs of all family members. The incidence of calorie deficiency is about equally distributed between rural and urban areas and there is strong evidence that calorie intake is positively correlated with the proportion of home-produced to total (home-produced and purchased) food.     

Nutrition and education. II. Educational achievement and nutrient intake of Chilean elementary and high school graduates.

The interrelationships between educational achievement (EA) and nutrient intake were investigated in 550 Chilean adolescent schoolers graduating from elementary and high school. The random sample included schoolers from both educational levels (1:1), from public and private schools (1:1), and from high, medium, and low socioeconomic status (SES) (1:1:1). Standard procedures for 24-hour dietary recall interviews were used to collect data, and adequacy of intake was assessed by the FAO/WHO Pattern. EA was measured by means of the Achievement Evaluation Program (AEP) and Academic Aptitude Test (AAT) in elementary and high school, respectively. In elementary school graduates, results showed a significant and positive correlation between EA (AEP) and energy, protein, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, calcium and vitamin A intake (Multiple r = 0.456 p less than 0.01; r2 = 0.208). The School Feeding Program beneficiaries who belonged to the low SES presented the lowest EA (AEP) together with a deficient nutrient intake, especially for energy, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin A and calcium, at the same time that they registered the lowest values for those anthropometric parameters, indicators of past nutrition, that is to say height-for-age, weight-for-age, head circumference-for-age and a higher upper-to-lower segment ratio, as compared with non-beneficiaries from the same SES and with those from the higher strata. In high-school graduates, EA (AAT) was found to be significantly and positively correlated with protein, calcium, riboflavin and iron intake (Multiple r = 0.438 p less than 0.001; r2 = 0.192). Nevertheless, these interrelationship are strongly related to SES and sex. Results showed that educational achievement (EA) is significantly and positively associated with nutrient intake, this fact being important for educational planning related to the School Feeding Program.     

The dietary score as a simplified methodology in processing and analyzing food consumption data

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the dietary score as a valid and rapid alternative procedure for the processing and analysis of food consumption data in Guatemala. The dietary score consists in assigning points to a diet based upon the number of servings the diet provides of each one of the eight groups in which food has been classified. The size of the serving for each food receiving points was estimated based on available data describing the food pattern of Guatemala. The caloric contribution of each of the eight groups to the total caloric intake was also calculated, and information on the caloric and nutrient needs of the Guatemalan population is discussed. In this communication, the dietary score was compared to the percentage of adequacy for energy and nutrients in 392 diets of women, and children between the ages of 24 and 60 months. Half of the dietaries were collected using the 24-hour recall method, while in the other half, the direct weighing method was used. Nutritional adequacy was estimated from food composition tables and based on the recommended energy and nutrient intake figures. In addition, by utilizing the adequacy indices for energy and nutrients, a binary variable was developed to describe the overall adequacy of the diet. This variable describes the probability a diet has of being adequate, given the dietary score obtained. In conclusion, the dietary score was found to be a valid, rapid and efficient alternative for the processing and evaluation of food consumption information, collected by means of either the direct weighing of foods or the 24-hour recall methods.     

Comparison of serum concentration and dietary intake of alpha-tocopherol in a sample of urban and rural Costa Rican adolescents

Results from several studies have suggested that vitamin E intake could inhibit the progression of atherosclerotic lesions. Therefore, this study was designed to evaluate Costa Rican adolescents' serum alpha-tocopherol levels and their correlation with Body Mass Index (BMI) and the dietary intake of vitamin E and saturated and polyunsaturated fat. Ninety-five healthy, non-smoking adolescents and non-vitamin supplement users (aged 13-18) from urban and rural areas in San José, Costa Rica, were included in this study. Serum levels of lipid adjusted alpha-tocopherol were significantly higher in rural adolescents compared with urban youngsters (4.192 mumol/mmol +/- 0.831 and 3.486 mumol/mmol +/- 0.996, respectively). Likewise, reported mean daily 1000 kcal adjusted-vitamin E intake was higher in rural adolescents than in urban youngsters (9.2 +/- 3.7 mg. 16.0 +/- 8.7 mg). An important correlation was observed between intake of energy from saturated fat and adjusted-alpha-tocopherol serum levels (r = 0.430). Contrariwise, they correlated poorly with dietary alpha-tocopherol (r = 0.273), suggesting that serum is not a good biomarket of intake for alpha-tocopherol. Additionally, our results showed a negative relationship between BMI and adjusted-serum vitamin E levels (beta = 0.189; CI 95% -0.153, -0.013). The analysis of vitamin E intake showed that over 25% of adolescents have inadequate intake of the nutrient. This study suggests that nutritionists and pediatricians should encourage alpha-tocopherol intake and monitor the food sources of the nutrient and the adolescents' body weight as part of the strategies aimed at developing a healthy lifestyle.     

Development of a food frequency questionnaire for Sri Lankan adults

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Food Frequency Questionnaires (FFQs) are commonly used in epidemiologic studies to assess long-term nutritional exposure. Because of wide variations in dietary habits in different countries, a FFQ must be developed to suit the specific population. Sri Lanka is undergoing nutritional transition and diet-related chronic diseases are emerging as an important health problem. Currently, no FFQ has been developed for Sri Lankan adults. In this study, we developed a FFQ to assess the regular dietary intake of Sri Lankan adults. METHODS: A nationally representative sample of 600 adults was selected by a multi-stage random cluster sampling technique and dietary intake was assessed by random 24-h dietary recall. Nutrient analysis of the FFQ required the selection of foods, development of recipes and application of these to cooked foods to develop a nutrient database. We constructed a comprehensive food list with the units of measurement. A stepwise regression method was used to identify foods contributing to a cumulative 90% of variance to total energy and macronutrients. In addition, a series of photographs were included. RESULTS: We obtained dietary data from 482 participants and 312 different food items were recorded. Nutritionists grouped similar food items which resulted in a total of 178 items. After performing step-wise multiple regression, 93 foods explained 90% of the variance for total energy intake, carbohydrates, protein, total fat and dietary fibre. Finally, 90 food items and 12 photographs were selected. CONCLUSION: We developed a FFQ and the related nutrient composition database for Sri Lankan adults. Culturally specific dietary tools are central to capturing the role of diet in risk for chronic disease in Sri Lanka. The next step will involve the verification of FFQ reproducibility and validity.     

Nutritional status of marginated children of the Madrid's autonomous community, Spain

The nutritional status of 101 institutionalized students aged 6 to 13 was assessed from the dietary and biochemical points of view. The children were pupils of a Youth Care Boarding School. The dietary survey revealed an adequate nutrient intake which met the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) in most cases as well as a high protein intake (250% of RDA). A slight deficiency in energy, zinc, magnesium and vitamins B2 and C was found in some cases in the eldest group. Blood parameters (erythrocyte counts, hematocrit, hemoglobin, mean corpuscular values, serum proteins, albumin, globulins, albumin/globulin ratio, urea and cholesterol) showed slightly lower values, mainly on hemoglobin, than those obtained from other similar groups. Nevertheless, urine parameters (nitrogen, urea, uric acid and creatinine) were higher, may be due to the high protein intake, energy deficiency and non-dietary factors such as lack of affection, socioeconomic problems, etc. All of these factors cause a rise in the students' catabolism. Correlations between dietary and biochemical data seem to corroborate that there is a shortage of energy, zinc, riboflavin, magnesium and vitamin C intakes in some cases, which limits the build up of several blood elements.     

Chromium content in foods and dietary intake estimation in the Northwest of Mexico

Chromium is an indispensable nutrient for the carbohydrates and lipids metabolism. In this study the chromium content in the twenty main foods of the diet from Northwestern Mexico was determined, as well as the daily mean intake which was estimated based on the food intake basket of this region. Chromium content was analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry using the graphite furnace technique and previous digestion of foods in microwave oven. The chromium mean intake was estimated considering the chromium daily mean intake for person per day and the chromium content of the foods analyzed in this study. The range chromium content in the foods analyzed was between 0.0004 and 0.1641 microgram/g dry weight. White cheese showed the highest chromium content followed by pasta soup, wheat tortilla, bread and meat. The main foods chromium contributors in the diet were: wheat tortilla (20%), white cheese (11%), corn tortilla (11%), pasta soup (10%), milk (10%), meat (9%) and white bread (8%). The daily chromium intake was 30.43 +/- 1.6 micrograms/d. Chromium values obtained in the food analyzed are considered low. Moreover, chromium intake obtained from the diet is not enough to meet the safety and adequate daily chromium intake. Therefore, the population from the Northwestern Mexico has a suboptimal dietary chromium intake.     

Comparison in the dietary intake of preschool children, attending national daycare centres (Junji), in the eastern area of Santiago, Chile

The objective of this study was to evaluate the energy intake of obese and normal nutritional status preschoolers, from four to five years old, attending several day care centres (JUNJI), in the eastern area of Santiago. The sample comprised 85 normal nutritional status and 35 obese children, representative of a population of 450 children. The food intake was evaluated twice a week and on one weekend day. At the day care centre, food intake was measured by food weighing and at the home; it was measured by food-recording. FAO 2001 energy requirements were used to calculate the energy requirements of the children. In both obese and normal nutritional status, energy intake was similar in the educational institution and home, although this energy intake corresponds to there meals time at JUNJI and only one serving at home. In respect to energy requirements of preschool children, both obese and normal nutritional status boys are at energy balance during the week (90 versus 110%). In the corresponding female groups, energy intake exceeds their energy requirement (116 and 111% respectively). In conclusion, energy intake at home, is greater and of minor quality, situation that worsens over the weekend in all preschoolers, independently of their nutritional condition (energy adequacy > 114%).     

Consuming cassava as a staple food places children 2-5 years old at risk for inadequate protein intake,an observational study in Kenya and Nigeria

Background  

Inadequate protein intake is known to be deleterious in animals. Using WHO consensus documents for human nutrient requirements, the protein:energy ratio (P:E) of an adequate diet is > 5%. Cassava has a very low protein content. This study tested the hypothesis that Nigerian and Kenyan children consuming cassava as their staple food are at greater risk for inadequate dietary protein intake than those children who consume less cassava.     

Nutrient estimation from an FFQ developed for a black Zimbabwean population

Background  

There is little information in the literature on methods of food composition database development to calculate nutrient intake from food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) data. The aim of this study is to describe the development of an FFQ and a food composition table to calculate nutrient intake in a Black Zimbabwean population.     

Nutrition in the sport practice: adaptation of the food guide pyramid to the characteristics of athletes diet

In spite of all the advances in sport nutrition and the importance of an adequate food intake in order to improve sport performance, both recreational and professional athletes forget frequently to include planning an optimum diet and fluid intake in their global strategy for performance. Physiological and metabolic adaptations produced as a consequence of physical exercise lead to the necessity of increasing caloric (in accordance to energy output) and protein (based on the trophic needs of the organism) intake. Likewise, paying major attention to vitamin and mineral intake, specifically B vitamins and zinc and chromium, is required, in order to optimize carbohydrate metabolism, the ultimate limiting factor for sport performance. During the training phase, 60% of calories should come from carbohydrates, protein intake should be 1.2-2 g/kg/day and athletes should follow the recommendations of the food guide pyramid. During the pre-, per- and post-competition phase the healthy aspect of the diet passes to a second level, in order to obtain good sport performance and to guarantee a fast and effective recovery. Again, carbohydrates with a high or medium glycaemic index and water are the nutrients which have to be calculated more thoroughly. In conclusion, athletes have to follow a diet that is adequate to their higher energy output and to their higher metabolic turnover. The food guide pyramid is a graphic expression which facilitates the comprehension and following of a healthy diet. In the present article, the authors introduce the pyramid adapted to the characteristics of sports nutrition, with easy-to-follow practical recommendations regarding the kind and amounts of foodstuffs that should be consumed in order to cover nutrient needs of people who exercise regularly.     

Effect of Substitution of High Stearic Low Linolenic Acid Soybean Oil for Hydrogenated Soybean Oil on Fatty Acid Intake

High stearic, low α-linolenic acid soybean oil (HSLL) has been developed via traditional breeding to serve as a substitute for partially hydrogenated soybean oils used in food manufacturing. The purpose of this study was to estimate the impact on fatty acid intake in the United States if HSLL were substituted for partially hydrogenated soybean oils used in several food categories, including baked goods, shortenings, fried foods, and margarines. Using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data (1999–2002), baseline intakes of five fatty acids and trans fatty acids (TFA) were determined at the mean and 90th percentile of fat consumption. Then intakes of these fatty acids were determined after HSLL was substituted for 100% of the partially hydrogenated soybean oils used in these four food categories. The results show that baseline intake of stearic acid is 3.0% energy at the mean and 3.3% energy at the 90th percentile. Use of HSLL could increase stearic acid intake to about 4–5% energy. Mean intakes of TFA could decrease from 2.5 to 0.9% energy, and intake of palmitic acid would remain unchanged. Use of HSLL as a substitute for partially hydrogenated soybean oils would result in changes in the fatty acid composition of the US diet consistent with current dietary recommendations.     

Determination vitamin A source foods by pregnant women,using a simplified dietary assessment (SDA)

The International Vitamin A Consultative Group (IVACG) developed a research instrument based on consumption of vitamin-A food sources to classify populations into groups of high, moderate and low deficiency risk in the consumption of this nutrient. The instrument was tested on a population of 91 pregnant women who attended prenatal health care service run by School of Public Health of the University of S?o Paulo. Such instrument was termed Simplified Dietary Assessment (SDA) and it is comprised of a 24-hour dietary recall--Consumption Index (CI) and consumption frequency questionnaire--Usual Food Pattern (UFP). SDA pointed out the most consumed daily and weekly foods as being milk in liquid form, tomato, lettuce, margarine and banana. All these food sources belong to groups of low and moderate vitamin A content. Assignment in risk groups was based on the recommended dietary intake proposed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations--(FAO/OMS--1991) and two-thirds of the recommended intake was considered the cutting off point. According to data obtained by the SDA, more than 50% of the population interviewed was assigned to the High and Moderate risk groups for deficiency in vitamin A intake. Statistical analysis of the data revealed a significant statistical correlation r = 0.50 (p > 0.005) and a weighted Kappa value of (kw = 0.207), which suggests that the SDA is a useful instrument and is a reasonable means for risk assignment of vitamin A deficiency among groups with inadequate levels of intake of foods as sources of this nutrient. However, the results suggest that in order to evaluate vitamin A intake appropriately, a larger number of applications of the IC questionnaires would be required.     

Prenatal diet, nutrient intake and pregnancy outcome in urban Ecuadorian primiparas.

A nutritional survey was conducted in an urban public maternity hospital, Hospital Gineco-Obstétrico Isidro Ayora (HGOIA), located in Quito, Ecuador. Seventy-four primiparas in the third trimester of pregnancy were recruited to assess the influence of sociedemographic factors on food patterns and nutrient intake, and the interrelationship between prenatal nutrient intake, maternal weight gain and pregnancy outcome. Results of the regression analysis indicated that maternal education was the factor most strongly associated with nutrient intake, followed by monthly per capita income. Maternal nutrient intake was next analyzed and compared with the WHO (1974, 1985) and NRC (1980) recommended daily allowances. Results also indicated the average daily intake of energy, protein, phosphorus, vitamins C and A, thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin met or exceeded the recommended daily allowances. Dietary calcium and iron intake, however, were below recommendations. Sodium and fat intake were both relatively high. Higher dietary fat intake was associated with increased birth weight, while lower protein intake was associated with increased risk of delivering a low-birth weight baby. Maternal weight gain during the third trimester predicted baby birth weight and height but not head circumference.