Energy conservation on Nova Scotia farms: Baseline energy data

Direct energy use is a small but essential component of the farm greenhouse gas (GHG) budget. Improvements in energy efficiency and renewable energy can help reduce farm operating costs, improve air quality and reduce GHG emission levels. Energy conservation is especially important in Nova Scotia (NS), Canada, where fossil fuels, particularly coal, remain the primary source of electrical generation. Responses from mail surveys were used to establish baseline data on a cross-section of NS farms with respect to direct energy costs and usage to demonstrate differences in farm type and size. A 32% (N=224) response rate was achieved. Based on this survey, the average energy bill for a NS farm in 2004 was $11,228, with most (61.7%) of their energy cost attributable to the purchase of petroleum products. Almost all farmers (96.4%) indicated that their energy cost was a primary concern. Farmers identified the operation of vehicles and mobile equipment, as well as lighting and heating as having the greatest energy requirements in their operations. Energy usage varied with farm type and size. NS farms consumed 1.2 petajoules of energy equivalent to 127 kilotonnes of CO₂ with 52.7% of emissions from electricity use in 2004.     

Evaluation of energy efficiency and renewable energy generation opportunities for small scale dairy farms: A case study in Prince Edward Island,Canada

Prince Edward Island (PEI) is the smallest province in Canada measuring about 5700 km² in area with a population of around 130,000 people. Small family farm operation is part of the Island's way of life. However, the dairy industry in North America is undergoing significant structural change. Statistics show a significant decline in the small dairy farms industry, while the number of large operations has been increasing. Advantages for large operations include purchasing energy in large quantities with better price margins and the inherent economy of scale created by such breaks. One strategy for small-scale farms to become competitive is to reduce their energy-related operational costs and greenhouse gas emissions. This can be achieved through taking energy efficiency steps, reducing overall energy consumption and generating energy through renewable energy resources and technologies. This paper uses a case study of a small dairy farm in Oyster Bed Bridge, PEI to gain insight into the direct use of energy within small dairy farms. An energy audit methodology is used to determine the energy intensity of the farm as well as energy efficiency opportunities. The paper also assesses the feasibility of meeting part of the energy demand of the farm with renewable energy generation. Energy efficiency recommendations for the case study farm include lighting retrofitting and regular maintenance of refrigeration condenser units. Renewable energy generation findings include the potential use of an anaerobic digester or a 25 kW wind turbine to generate the majority of the operation's energy.     

It's not right,but we do it. Exploring why and how Czech farmers become renewable energy producers

The paper provides empirical evidence on emerging on-farm renewable energy enterprises in a post-communist space, namely in the Czech Republic. In addition to exploring farmers' individual motivations to adopt activities related to renewable energy production (biofuel crops growing, biomass production, operation of anaerobic digestion (AD) plants, and implementation of solar and wind energy projects), the study focuses on analysing regional and inter-firm variances in the level and types of adopted activities. A considerable discrepancy between stated personal attitudes of farmers (supporting the traditional view that farmers should only produce food) and actual practice of farms (dealing with renewable energy production for economic reasons) was detected. The extent and types of energy activities proved to be influenced both by geographical conditions and types of farm. While there are significant differences between the studied districts with different climatic and geographic conditions in the type and extent of energy crops and biomass cultivation, the expansion of AD plants and solar power systems was observed the same in both areas. The adoption of energy activities is positively correlated with company size and area of cultivated land, and negatively correlated with the degree of focus on livestock production. While growing biofuel crops is typical for large and medium-sized enterprises, individual farmers and small enterprises with less land area are more likely to produce biomass for combustion and use own grounds and roofs for implementing solar systems. Finally, the most common four types of currently adopted multipath renewable energy enterprises were identified.     

Improving the energy performance of UK households: Results from surveys of consumer adoption and use of low- and zero-carbon technologies

This paper presents results from a UK Open University project which surveyed consumers’ reasons for adoption, and non-adoption, of energy efficiency measures and renewable energy systems—collectively called low- and zero-carbon technologies—and their experiences of using these technologies. Data were gathered during 2006 via an online questionnaire with nearly 400 responses, plus 111 in-depth telephone interviews. The respondents were mainly environmentally concerned, ‘green’ consumers and therefore these are purposive rather than representative surveys. The paper outlines results for four energy efficiency measures (loft insulation, condensing boilers, heating controls and energy-efficient lighting) and four household renewables (solar thermal water heating, solar photovoltaics, micro-wind turbines and wood-burning stoves). These green consumers typically adopted these technologies to save energy, money and/or the environment, which many considered they achieved despite rebound effects. The reasons for considering but rejecting these technologies include the familiar price barriers, but there were also other obstacles that varied according to the technology concerned. Nearly a third of the surveyed consumers had adopted household renewables, over half of which were wood stoves and 10% solar thermal water heating systems. Most adopters of renewables had previously installed several energy efficiency measures, but only a fifth of those who seriously considered renewables actually installed a system. This suggests sell energy efficiency first, then renewables. There seems to be considerable interest in household renewables in the UK, especially among older, middle-class green consumers, but so far only relatively few pioneers have managed to overcome the barriers to adoption.     

Energy consumption,energy savings,and emission analysis in Malaysian office buildings

This paper is concerned with the estimation of energy use in office buildings in Malaysia and with the energy use of major equipment. Energy intensity (EI) – a measure of a building's energy performance – is estimated for Malaysia and compared with a number of selected countries. Air conditioners are shown to be the major energy users (57%) in office buildings, followed by lighting (19%), lifts and pumps (18%) and other equipment (6%). It is estimated that 77,569 MWh of energy can be saved and a huge reduction of emissions achieved through the application of advance glazing, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), insulation, housekeeping, and by raising thermostat set point temperature of air conditioners, and reducing EI.     

An analysis of energy use and input costs for cotton production in Turkey

The aim of this study was to determine direct input energy and indirect energy in per hectare in cotton production and compare with input costs. The study also sought to analyse the effect of farm size. Data were collected from sixty five farmers using a face to face questionnaire. The sample farms were selected through a stratified random sampling technique. The results revealed that cotton production consumed a total of 49.73 GJha⁻¹ of which diesel energy consumption was 31.1% followed by fertilizer and machinery energy. Output–input energy ratio and energy productivity were 0.74 and 0.06 kg of cotton MJ⁻¹, respectively. Cost analysis showed that net return per kilogram of seed cotton was insufficient to cover costs of production in the research area. The most important cost items were labour, machinery costs, land rent and pesticide costs. Large farms were more successful in energy productivity, use efficiency and economic performance. It was concluded that energy management at farm level could be improved to give more efficient and economic use of energy.     

An analysis of energy use efficiency of canola production in Turkey

In this study, a survey and economic analysis regarding the use of input have been performed with canola farmers in the Trakya region of Turkey; survey data were obtained from 100 farmers, face-to-face. The average energy use efficiency is 4.68 and this value increases as farm size increases; according to the results of this study, energy is used more efficiently in large farms. The difference between average input and output energy is 67259.36 (MJ ha⁻¹). The specific energies of small, medium, and large farms are 62584.37, 69836.21, and 74405.43 respectively. The ratio of direct and indirect energy sources are 24.69%, and 75.31% respectively, and the benefit–cost ratio of canola production is 2.09.     

The role of built environment energy efficiency in a sustainable UK energy economy

Energy efficiency in the built environment can make significant contributions to a sustainable energy economy. In order to achieve this, greater public awareness of the importance of energy efficiency is required. In the short term, new efficient domestic appliances, building technologies, legislation quantifying building plant performance, and improved building regulations to include installed plant will be required. Continuing these improvements in the longer term is likely to see the adoption of small-scale renewable technologies embedded in the building fabric. Internet-based energy services could deliver low-cost building energy management and control to the mass market enabling plant to be operated and maintained at optimum performance levels and energy savings quantified. There are many technology options for improved energy performance of the building fabric and energy systems and it is not yet clear which will prove to be the most economic. Therefore, flexibility is needed in legislation and energy-efficiency initiatives.     

Environmental issues associated with wind energy – A review

Recognized as one of the most mature renewable energy technologies, wind energy has been developing rapidly in recent years. Many countries have shown interest in utilizing wind power, but they are concerned about the environmental impacts of the wind farms. The continuous growth of the wind energy industry in many parts of the world, especially in some developing countries and ecologically vulnerable regions, necessitates a comprehensive understanding of wind farm induced environmental impacts. The environmental issues caused by wind farms were reviewed in this paper by summarizing existing studies. Available mitigation measures to minimize these adverse environmental impacts were discussed in this document. The intention of this paper is to provide state-of-the-art knowledge about environmental issues associated with wind energy development as well as strategies to mitigate environmental impacts to wind energy planners and developers.     

Owners perception on the adoption of building envelope energy efficiency measures in Swedish detached houses

The paper focuses on Swedish homeowners’ need for and perceptions about adopting building envelop energy efficiency measures. The paper is based on a questionnaire survey of 3059 homeowners (response rate of 36%) selected by stratified random sampling during the summer of 2008. The results showed that 70–90% of the respondents had no intention of adopting such a measure over the next 10 years. The main reasons for non-adoption were that homeowners were satisfied with the physical condition, thermal performance, and aesthetics of their existing building envelope components. A greater proportion of respondents perceived that improved attic insulation has more advantages than energy efficient windows and improved wall insulation, but windows were more likely to be installed than improved attic insulation. Respondents gave high priority to economic factors in deciding on an energy efficiency measure. Interpersonal sources, construction companies, installers, and energy advisers were important sources of information for homeowners as they planned to adopt building envelope energy efficiency measures. Policy measures to facilitate the rate of adoption of energy efficient building envelope measures are discussed.     

Civilisation and energy payback

Several publications (e.g., Smil, Reynolds) have shown the links between civilisation and the efficiency of energy options. As a general rule, human progress was supported by more and more efficient energy options. One indicator of this efficiency is the energy payback, the ratio of energy produced to energy invested. From the earliest use of wood to the massive use of oil in the 1970s, energy payback ratios (EPRs) have improved significantly.     

Output and substitution elasticities of energy and implications for renewable energy expansion in the ECOWAS region

This study estimates output and substitution elasticities of renewable energy and nonrenewable energy for the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and discusses implications for expanding the former. The results show that nonrenewable energy promises greater benefits for ECOWAS economic transition, with output elasticities averaging between 0.052–0.579 and −0.055 to 0.223 for nonrenewable energy and renewable energy respectively. Overall estimated technological progress is low (−0.5% to 2.6%); the bulk coming from input efficiency. Substitution elasticities (0.02–0.94) suggest potential for switching towards renewable energy. Notwithstanding, scale, economics and sitting problems inherent in renewable power generation challenge the opportunities for energy substitution. A sustainable policy solution, therefore, appears to be one favoring scaled and efficient electricity generation from fossil energy in the short-run with a gradual switch towards renewable power in the long-run. In general, the applied model provides insights that energy efficiency enhances sustainable growth by propelling technological advancement especially when technical change is scale-biased and factor-augmenting. The study also provides insights that impacts of exogenous shocks to inputs are temporary, and hence, do not jeopardize efforts aimed at scaling output through increased and efficient use of labor, capital and energy; especially nonrenewable energy.     

An economic analysis of energy requirements and input costs for tomato production in Turkey

The aim of this study was to examine direct and indirect input energy in per hectare in tomato (industrial type) production and compare it with production costs. The research also sought to analyse the effect of farm size. For this purpose, the data were collected from 95 tomato farmers by questionnaire method. The results indicated that tomato production consumed a total of 45.53 GJ ha⁻¹ of which diesel energy consumption was 34.82% followed by fertilizer and machinery energy. Output–input energy ratio and energy productivity were found to be 0.80 and 0.99 kg of tomato MJ⁻¹, respectively. Cost analysis revealed that the most important cost items were labour costs, machinery costs, land rent and pesticide costs. According to the benefit–cost ratio, large farms were more successful in energy use and economic performance. It was concluded that energy use management at farm level could be improved to give more efficient and economic use of energy.     

Analysis of the EU renewable energy directive by a techno-economic optimisation model

The EU renewable energy (RES) directive sets a target of increasing the share of renewable energy used in the EU to 20% by 2020. The Norwegian goal for the share of renewable energy in 2020 is 67.5%, an increase from 60.1% in 2005. The Norwegian power production is almost solely based on renewable resources and the possibility to change from fossil power plants to renewable power production is almost non-existing. Therefore other measures have to be taken to fulfil the RES directive. Possible ways for Norway to reach its target for 2020 are analysed with a technology-rich, bottom-up energy system model (TIMES-Norway). This new model is developed with a high time resolution among others to be able to analyse intermittent power production. Model results indicate that the RES target can be achieved with a diversity of options including investments in hydropower, wind power, high-voltage power lines for export, various heat pump technologies, energy efficiency measures and increased use of biodiesel in the transportation sector. Hence, it is optimal to invest in a portfolio of technology choices in order to satisfy the RES directive, and not one single technology in one energy sector.     

Towards sustainability of energy systems: A primer on how to apply the concept of energy services to identify necessary trends and policies

Virtually all goods and services that characterize modern societies’ welfare depend on the provision of commercial energy. The core objective of this paper is to identify necessary changes in trends for achieving a transition towards more sustainable energy systems and development paths. The major conclusions of this analysis are (i) a rigorous rethinking process has to take place to identify which level of energy services per capita lead to enhancing human welfare and quality of life; (ii) a significant increase in energy conversion efficiency has to be triggered to finally provide energy services with far less input of energy than today; (iii) a continuous increase in the share of renewable energy sources and other low-emission options has to be brought about; (iv) however, as history has shown this process of technological learning has to be accompanied by proper energy price and regulatory policies. Otherwise, it is very likely that energy conservation gains due to technical efficiency improvements will be outweighed again by increases in energy service demand and, straightforward, energy consumption and CO₂ emissions.     

Financial impact of energy efficiency under a federal combined efficiency and renewable electricity standard: Case study of a Kansas “super-utility”

Historically, local, state and federal policies have separately promoted the generation of electricity from renewable technologies and the pursuit of energy efficiency to help mitigate the detrimental effects of global climate change and foster energy independence. Federal policymakers are currently considering and several states have enacted a combined efficiency and renewable electricity standard which proponents argue provides a comprehensive approach with greater flexibility and at lower cost. We examine the financial impacts on various stakeholders from alternative compliance strategies with a Combined Efficiency and Renewable Electricity Standard (CERES) using a case study approach for utilities in Kansas. Our results suggest that an investor-owned utility is likely to pursue the most lucrative compliance strategy for its shareholders—one that under-invests in energy efficiency resources. If a business model for energy efficiency inclusive of both a lost fixed cost recovery mechanism and a shareholder incentive mechanism is implemented, our analysis indicates that an investor-owned utility would be more willing to pursue energy efficiency as a lower-cost CERES compliance strategy. Absent implementing such a regulatory mechanism, separate energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards would improve the likelihood of reducing reliance on fossil fuels at least-cost through the increased pursuit of energy efficiency.     

Emerging energy scenario in Western Himalayan state of Himachal Pradesh

The GHGs emmited by using conventional energy sources rapid industrialization and development in hills, are contributing global warming, which has resulted in melting of glaciers located in the state at the rate of 0.3–20 m² per year as per recent studies. The shrinking of glaciers, which are the main source of water of Himalayan rivers, can have an adverse impact on the future of hydro-power projects, many of which may become non-functional during next 40–50 years if the current trend of melting of glaciers continues and the other renewable energy sources are required to be tapped to supplement the declining hydro-electricity generation. The energy consumption for cooking, lighting and space heating in the Western Himalayan Indian state of Himachal Pradesh, is highest in the northern India. The fuelwood consumption constitutes about 52% of the total energy consumption of the state. About 2.7 h per person per trip in the rural areas, are spent for the collection of fuelwood mainly during winters. A number of options and potential of renewable energy sources for cooking, heating and lighting in the state have been discussed. The future policy interventions in the energy sector are also presented.     

Consumer demand for ‘green power’ and energy efficiency

This article examines reported willingness to pay for electric utility investments in renewable energy and energy efficiency resources using the results of Deliberative Polls^® conducted by electric utilities in Texas.¹ Age, education, and salary tend to affect reported willingness to pay for utility investments in these resources. Intensive exposure to information about energy resource issues led to an increase in the number of respondents interested in paying a modest premium to support investments in both renewable energy resources and energy efficiency. However, average reported premiums actually declined following the Polls, as very high outlier responses moved to more reasonable values following the Polls. These results support the contention that informed dialogue about energy alternatives will result in broader interest in providing a modest level of support for these resources.     

The efficiency-renewable synergism

Improving energy efficiency is the most effective and least expensive way to reduce carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in most industrialized nations— including the UK. A report from the UKAEA's own Energy Technology Support Unit concludes that energy efficiency can displace nearly four times more CO₂ than nuclear power can - more quickly and more cost-effectively. Each pound invested in efficient lighting can displace four to five times as much CO₂ as a pound invested in new nuclear power. Meanwhile, given recent dramatic progress in renewable energy technologies, the most promising long-term CO₂-abatement strategy may be a synergistic combination of energy efficiency and renewable energy.     

DPRK energy sector development priorities: Options and preferences

The goal of international negotiations with the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK), when they begin again, will be to convince the DPRK to give up its nuclear weapons and the capabilities to produce them. The DPRK’s energy sector is a key to resolution of the issue. Thus offering a well-considered, well-structured package of energy sector assistance options will be key to the sustainable success of the negotiations. This article briefly reviews some of the key options for DPRK energy assistance ranging from human capacity-building in fields like energy efficiency, renewable energy, and energy markets, to assistance with rebuilding key electricity and coal mining infrastructure, to integrated pilot energy/electricity grid/economic development projects on the county level, to light-water nuclear reactors. It then reviews preferences for DPRK assistance options as offered by North Koreans, and a summary of the likely points of view of the key DPRK actors that will be involved in negotiations.