Recommendations for implementation of energy strategy of the Republic of Croatia

The Energy Strategy of the Republic of Croatia was adopted by the Croatian Parliament in 2009 for the period until 2020 in order to harmonize national energy goals with goals and time framework of strategic documents of the European Union. The adoption of the Energy Strategy Implementation Program with associated measures is still in process. The goal of the Strategy was to create sustainable energy system that will make a balanced contribution to the security of energy supply, competitiveness and environmental protection in Croatia. In this paper an overview of the energy production, final energy consumption and planned development of energy infrastructure is given. The intention of the paper was to research and stress out the abilities and opportunities of Croatian energy system and to give recommendations for Energy Strategy implementation and practical realization of planned energy infrastructure projects for improvement of security of energy supply and competitiveness of energy system of the Republic of Croatia.     

Energy efficiency trends and policy in Slovenia

The energy dependency of Slovenia is high (52.1%), but it is a little lower than the average energy dependency in the EU 27 (53.8%). Slovenia imports all its petroleum products and natural gas and partly coal and electricity. The energy intensity of Slovenia is higher by about 50% than the average in the EU 27. The target of the EU Directive on energy end-use efficiency and energy services adopted in 2006 is to achieve a 9% improvement of EE (energy efficiency) within the period 2008-2016. The new target of the EU climate and energy package “20-20-20 plan” is a 20% increase in EE by 2020. Since 1991 the Slovenian government has been supporting energy efficiency activities. The improvement of EE was one of the targets of strategic energy documents ReSROE (Resolution on the Strategy of Use and Supply of Energy in Slovenia from 1996 and ReNEP (Resolution on the National Energy Programme) from 2004 adopted by the Slovenian National Assembly (Parliament) in previous years. The Energy Act adopted in 1999 defines the objective of energy policy as giving priority to EE and utilization of renewable energy sources. The goals of the “National Energy Action Plan 2008-2016 (NEEAP)” adopted by the Slovenian government in 2008 include a set of energy efficiency improvement instruments in the residential, industrial, transport and tertiary sectors. The target of the NEEAP is to save final energy in the 2008-2016 period, amounting to at least 4261 GWh or 9% of baseline consumption. The indicators of energy efficiency trends show considerable improvement in the period from 1998 to 2007. The improvement of EE was reached in all sectors: manufacturing, transport and households. The paper analyses the structure, trends of energy consumption and energy efficiency indicators by sectors of economic activity. A review of energy efficiency policy and measures is described in the paper.     

Assessment of power-to-power renewable energy storage based on the smart integration of hydrogen and micro gas turbine technologies

Power-to-Power is a process whereby the surplus of renewable power is stored as chemical energy in the form of hydrogen. Hydrogen can be used in situ or transported to the consumption node. When power is needed again, hydrogen can be consumed for power generation. Each of these processes incurs energy losses, leading to a certain round-trip efficiency (Energy Out/Energy In). Round-trip efficiency is calculated considering the following processes; water electrolysis for hydrogen production, compressed, liquefied or metal-hydride for hydrogen storage, fuel-cell-electric-truck for hydrogen distribution and micro-gas turbine for hydrogen power generation. The maximum achievable round-trip efficiency is of 29% when considering solid oxide electrolysis along with metal hydride storage. This number goes sharply down when using either alkaline or proton exchange membrane electrolyzers, 22.2% and 21.8% respectively. Round-trip efficiency is further reduced if considering other storage media, such as compressed- or liquefied-H₂. However, the aim of the paper is to highlight there is still a large margin to increase Power-to-Power round-trip efficiency, mainly from the hydrogen production and power generation blocks, which could lead to round-trip efficiencies of around 40%–42% in the next decade for Power-to-Power energy storage systems with micro-gas turbines.     

Factors which influence Nova Scotia farmers in implementing energy efficiency and renewable energy measures

Improvements in energy efficiency and renewable energy use can reduce farm operating costs and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Responses (n=224, representing a 32% response rate) from a mail survey were used to assess use and interest in energy efficient and renewable energy options on farms in Nova Scotia, Canada. Energy efficiency options used the most were behavior, insulation, and lighting. Few farms used renewable energy options. Approximately 78% of farmers indicated an interest in implementing energy efficiency and renewable energy options. Interest varied by farm type and size. Interest increased with farm size. The two main efficiency options of interest were lighting (60.8%) and insulation (43.7%), while wind power development (55.5%) and solar water heating (24.5%) were the main renewable options of interest. Farmers concerned about power and equipment reliability were less likely to be interested in implementing options. Farmers concerned about the environment were more likely to be interested in implementing options. Current use of certain energy efficiency technologies, such as efficient lighting, influenced implementation interest.     

Beyond free electricity: The costs of electric cooking in poor households and a market-friendly alternative

The South African government is introducing a poverty-reduction policy that will supply households with a monthly 50 kWh free basic electricity (FBE) subsidy. We show that FBE distorts the energy choices of poor households by encouraging them to cook with electricity, whereas alternatives such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) can deliver a similar cooking service at a much lower cost to society. An alternative energy scheme, such as providing households with clean energy credits equivalent in value to the FBE's cost, could deliver additional energy services worth at least 6% of total household welfare (and probably much more) at no additional public cost; those benefits are so large that they would cover the entire cost of LPG fuel needed to implement the scheme. The analysis is extremely sensitive to the coincidence of electric cooking with peak power demand on the South African grid and to assumptions regarding how South Africa will meet its looming shortfall in peak power capacity. One danger of FBE is that actual peak coincidence and the costs of supplying peak power could be much less favorable than we assume, and such uncertainties expose the South African power system to potentially very high costs of service.     

Energy policy and standard for built environment in China

Trends in China's energy future will have considerable consequences for both China and the global environment. Though China's carbon emissions are low on a per capita basis, China is already ranked the world's second largest producer of carbon, behind only America. China's buildings sector currently accounts for 23% of China's total energy use and is projected to increase to one-third by 2010. Energy policy plays an important role in China's sustainable development. The purpose of this study is to provide a broad overview of energy efficiency issues in the built environment in China. This paper, firstly briefly, reviews the key national policies related to the built environment and demonstrates the government's environmental concern. Secondly, the authors introduce recent energy policies in the built environment. Energy efficiency and renewable energy in the built environment, which are the key issues of the national energy policy, have been reviewed. Discussion of the implementation of energy policy has been carried out.     

Energy for sustainable development in Malaysia: Energy policy and alternative energy

Energy is often known as the catalyst for development. Globally, the per capita consumption of energy is often used as a barometer to measure the level of economic development in a particular country. Realizing the importance of energy as a vital component in economic and social development, the government of Malaysia has been continuously reviewing its energy policy to ensure long-term reliability and security of energy supply. Concentrated efforts are being undertaken to ensure the sustainability of energy resources, both depletable and renewable. The aim of this paper is to describe the various energy policies adopted in Malaysia to ensure long-term reliability and security of energy supply. The role of both, non-renewable and renewable sources of energy in the current Five-Fuel Diversification Strategy energy mix will also be discussed. Apart from that, this paper will also describe the various alternative energy and the implementation of energy efficiency program in Malaysia.     

我国能源统计工作面临的问题及完善途径分析

能源统计工作虽然经过几次变革,但在有效反映能源经济现象实质,为国家宏观调控和制定能源政策等提供依据方面仍相对滞后。我国的能源统计在统计方法、统计范围、评价指标体系、统计报表和统计力量、统计数据等方面都不能适应现行低碳环保型可持续发展经济模式。可以从能源量、能源效率、能源结构的统计以及能源清洁生产和消耗的相关统计等方面加强我国能源统计的研究和管理。     

A nuclear-powered North Africa: Just a desert mirage or is there something on the horizon?

All of the North African countries have plans to develop nuclear power. If successful, nuclear energy could supply up to 9–15% of all electricity consumption in the region by 2030. How realistic are these plans and under what conditions can they be implemented? This paper seeks to answer this question by analyzing the motivations and capacities for deploying nuclear energy in the five North African countries by examining both regional and national factors. These factors are compared to similar characteristics of the countries with existing nuclear power programs using a series of quantitative indicators. While all five countries have strong motivations to develop nuclear power, which result from the high growth rates in demand for electricity and energy security concerns, their financial and institutional capacities to deploy nuclear energy vary and are generally lower than in those countries which already operate nuclear power plants. Most likely, North Africa will need to rely on external assistance to implement its nuclear energy plans. The article identifies three scenarios of nuclear power development from the interplay between internal and external factors, particularly the success of renewable energy projects and the ability to attract international investment in nuclear power.     

Energy supply,demand, and policy in Viet Nam,with future projections

This article provides background on the current status and recent trends of energy use in Viet Nam, as well as projections of energy demand and energy supply in the coming decades. The article summarizes the results of the current national Master Plan for developing the electricity supply sector to meet increasing electricity demand. Also described are the evolution and current status of Viet Nam’s energy policies, including those related to energy security, energy efficiency and conservation, the environment, and development of renewable energy sources, as well as strategies for power sector development and restructuring of the energy sector toward greater use of competitive energy markets. The initial phase of the Viet Nam energy sector modeling effort under the Asian Energy Security (AES) project is described. The final section of this article offers conclusions regarding the status of Viet Nam’s energy sector and policies, and recommendations regarding “next steps” in energy security analysis.     

Measurement and analysis of product energy efficiency to assist energy star criteria development: An example for desktop computers

The Energy Star labeling program contributes to reducing economic and environmental impacts. Although product-specific criteria for the label are developed by taking into account potential energy savings, more robust criteria need to be developed to minimize energy consumption (and consequential global warming potential (GWP)). The objectives of this study are: (i) to measure what we refer to as the technical and cost efficiencies of products with respect to the relative Energy Star criteria achievement rate and GWP, respectively; and (ii) to analyze the relationship between these efficiencies and product design features, using stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) and data envelopment analysis (DEA). As an example, these analyses are applied to data for desktop computers. The results indicate that desktop computer manufacturers currently achieve energy savings that exceed those required by the Energy Star label. The principal product design features affecting the efficiencies are primarily the efficiency and power capacity of the power supply and the number of cores in the central processing unit. This study can help the program develop more robust criteria that ultimately reduce GWP and can provide guidance to manufacturers to strategically improve energy efficiency.     

Energy efficiency in the British housing stock: Energy demand and the Homes Energy Efficiency Database

The UK Government has unveiled an ambitious retrofit programme that seeks significant improvement to the energy efficiency of the housing stock. High quality data on the energy efficiency of buildings and their related energy demand is critical to supporting and targeting investment in energy efficiency. Using existing home improvement programmes over the past 15 years, the UK Government has brought together data on energy efficiency retrofits in approximately 13 million homes into the Homes Energy Efficiency Database (HEED), along with annual metered gas and electricity use for the period of 2004–2007.This paper describes the HEED sample and assesses its representativeness in terms of dwelling characteristics, the energy demand of different energy performance levels using linked gas and electricity meter data, along with an analysis of the impact retrofit measures has on energy demand. Energy savings are shown to be associated with the installation of loft and cavity insulation, and glazing and boiler replacement. The analysis illustrates this source of ‘in-action’ data can be used to provide empirical estimates of impacts of energy efficiency retrofit on energy demand and provides a source of empirical data from which to support the development of national housing energy efficiency retrofit policies.     

Can the South African transport system surmount reduced crude oil availability?

This paper is based on an elaborate research project carried out in 2008. International ‘Peak Oil’ predictions were translated to the South African context as a basis for the energy analysis. Based on available plans for the implementation of new power plants, and the like, various energy availability scenarios were developed. On the transportation side, the current transport demand (passenger and freight) was combined with fuel efficiency knowledge in the transportation field. Planned or proven international efficiency improvement interventions were assessed regarding their feasibility in the South African context. Furthermore, implementation trajectories up to the year 2030 were developed for all potential efficiency measures. Finally, the energy availability scenarios and feasible energy measure trajectories were combined to provide the client with investment suggestions and other conclusions and recommendations.     

2010～2020年我国能源和电力发展前景分析

本文对我国2015及2020年能源、电力消费以及碳排放强度进行高中低三种情景分析。结果表明,中方案和低方案能够实现到2020年非化石能源消费占一次能源消费比重达到15%的目标,而高方案要实现该目标,必须将人均能源消费弹性系数降至0.6左右;2020年,低碳能源发电量比例有望提高至29%～43%,核电装机比例能达到5%左右;在2010～2015年期间,清洁能源发电装机增量将首次超过煤电装机增量。     

State-level benefits of energy efficiency

This paper describes benefits attributable to state-level energy efficiency programs. Nationwide, state-level energy efficiency programs have targeted all sectors of the economy and have employed a wide range of methods to promote energy efficiency. Standard residential and industrial programs typically identify between 20% and 30% energy savings in homes and plants, respectively. Over a 20-year period of time, an average state that aggressively pursues even a limited array of energy efficiency programs can potentially reduce total state energy use by as much as 20%. Well-designed energy efficiency programs can be expected to help overcome numerous barriers to the market penetration of energy efficient technologies and accelerate the market penetration of the technologies. Energy efficiency programs are cost-effective; typical benefit–cost ratios exceed 3:1 and are much higher when non-energy and macroeconomic benefits are included. Indeed, energy efficiency and associated programs and investments can create significant numbers of new jobs and enhance state tax revenues. Several states have incorporated energy efficiency into their economic development programs. It should also be noted that increasing amounts of venture capital are being invested in the energy sector in general and in specific technologies like solar power in particular.     

Energy indicators for sustainable development

Energy is an essential factor in overall efforts to achieve sustainable development. Countries striving to this end are seeking to reassess their energy systems with a view toward planning energy programmes and strategies in line with sustainable development goals and objectives. This paper summarizes the outcome of an international partnership initiative on indicators for sustainable energy development that aims to provide an analytical tool for assessing current energy production and use patterns at a national level. The proposed set of energy indicators represents a first step of a consensus reached on this subject by five international agencies—two from the United Nations system (the Department of Economic and Social Affairs and the International Atomic Energy Agency), two from the European Union (Eurostat and the European Environment Agency) and one from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (the International Energy Agency). Energy and environmental experts including statisticians, analysts, policy makers and academics have started to implement general guidelines and methodologies in the development of national energy indicators for use in their efforts to monitor the effects of energy policies on the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.     

ACROPOLIS: An example of international collaboration in the field of energy modelling to support greenhouse gases mitigation policies

Energy models are considered as valuable tools to assess the impact of various energy and environment policies. The ACROPOLIS initiative, supported by the European Commission and the International Energy Agency, used up to 15 energy models to simulate and evaluate selected policy measures and instruments and then compare their impacts on energy systems essentially in terms of costs of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) reduction and energy technology choice. Four case studies are formulated considering policies and measures on renewable portfolio schemes and internationally tradable green certificates, emissions trading and global GHG abatement target, energy efficiency standards and internalisation of external costs. The main focus of the project is on the electricity sector. From a large set of quantified results, ACROPOLIS provides an international scientific consensus, on some key issues, which could be useful in assessing and designing energy and environment policies at the world, European and national/regional levels. It concludes that the Kyoto targets (and their continuation beyond 2010 in specific scenarios) could be achieved at a cost around 1% of GDP through global emissions trading, indicating also that this flexibility mechanism is a more cost-effective instrument for GHG mitigation than meeting the goal domestically without trade. It demonstrates that internalising external costs through a price increase reduces local pollutants (SO_x, NO_x, and others) and it produces other benefits such as triggering the penetration of clean technologies in addition to the curbing of CO₂ emissions.     

Ready for nuclear energy?: An assessment of capacities and motivations for launching new national nuclear power programs

The International Atomic Energy Agency reports that as of July 2009 there were 52 countries interested in building their first nuclear power plant. This paper characterizes and evaluates these “Newcomer Countries” in terms of their capacity and motivations to develop nuclear power. It quantifies factors historically associated with the development of nuclear energy programs and then benchmarks the Newcomers against these data. Countries with established nuclear power programs, particularly where nuclear facilities are privately owned, are typically larger, wealthier and politically stable economies with high government effectiveness. Nuclear power was historically launched during periods of high electricity consumption growth. Other indicators for the potential of nuclear power include: the size of the national grid, the presence of international grid connections and security of fuel supply for electricity production. We identify 10 Newcomers which most closely resemble the Established Nuclear Power Countries and thus are most likely to deploy nuclear energy, 10 countries where the development of nuclear energy is uncertain due to high political instability, 14 countries with lower capacities where pursuing nuclear energy may require especially strong international cooperation and 18 countries where the development of nuclear power is less likely due to their significantly lower capacities and motivations.     

Review on Malaysia's national energy developments: Key policies,agencies, programmes and international involvements

This paper aims to present a review on Malaysia's national energy developments by looking at various angles in terms of renewable energy and energy efficiency. Energy demand and consumption by sectors are presented as well as the fuel mix in electricity generation. Key energy policies implemented from the incorporation of Malaysia's national oil company, Petronas in 1974 until the National Green Technology Policy 2009 and a future policy will be addressed. The roles of key players as well as important agencies in energy development are briefly presented. Key programmes in energy development such as Malaysian Industrial Energy Efficiency Improvement Project, Small Renewable Energy Power Programme and Building Energy Efficiency Programme are discussed as well as successful initiatives from the programmes. Malaysia's international involvements towards reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and carbon emissions especially Montreal Protocol and Kyoto Protocol are highlighted. As a conclusion, Malaysia is aware of its role in formulating its national energy development policies, sensitive towards the country's development towards the environment and utilization of energy resources as well as conscientious and responsive towards the call for sustainable development in promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency.     

Energy efficiency improvement procedures and audit results of electrical,thermal and solar applications in Palestine

Energy conservation in utilities has played a vital role in improving energy efficiency in the industrial, commercial and residential sectors. The electrical energy consumption in Palestine has increased sharply in the past few years and achieved by the end of 2001 to 10% per year. It is expected that this percentage will increase to about 12% if the current political situation will end hopefully with peace. Modern energy efficient technologies are needed for the national energy policy. Such technologies are investigated in this paper. Implementing of a national 3 years project aiming at energy efficiency improvement in residential and industrial sectors as well as in public utilities, which include wide range of diversified audits and power measurements, had led to creating this paper. Measurement and audit results had shown that the total conservation potential in these sectors is around 15% of the total energy consumption. The associated costs of the investment in this field are relatively low and correspond to a pay back period varying in the range from 6 to 36 months. Consequently, the energy conservation policy will be seriously improved in the forthcoming years. It is estimated that 10% of the new energy purchasing capacity will be reduced accordingly.