Surface film formation on a graphite negative electrode in lithium-ion batteries: AFM study on the effects of co-solvents in ethylene carbonate-based solutions

In situ AFM observation of the basal plane of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) was performed before and after cyclic voltammetry in 1 mol dm⁻³ LiClO₄ dissolved in ethylene carbonate (EC), EC+diethyl carbonate (DEC), and EC+dimethyl carbonate (DMC) to clarify the effects of co-solvents in EC-based solutions on surface film formation on graphite negative electrodes in lithium-ion cells. In each solution, surface film formation involved the following two different processes: (i) intercalation of solvated lithium ions and their decomposition beneath the surface; and (ii) direct decomposition of solvent molecules on the basal plane to form a precipitate layer. The most remarkable difference among these solvent systems was that solvent co-intercalation took place more extensively in EC+DEC than in EC+DMC or EC. Raman analysis of ion-solvent interactions revealed that a lithium ion is solvated by three EC molecules and one DEC molecule in EC+DEC, whereas it is solvated exclusively by EC in EC+DMC and in EC, which suggested that the presence of linear alkyl carbonates in the solvation shell of lithium ion enhance the degree of solvent co-intercalation that occurs in the initial stage of the surface film formation.     

Effects of solvents and salts on the thermal stability of LiC6

Accelerating rate calorimetry (ARC) was used to study the thermal stability of Li_0.81C₆ in dimethyl carbonate (DMC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), ethylene carbonate (EC), and an EC/DEC mixture as well as in LiPF₆- and LiBOB-based electrolytes. ARC results show that linear carbonates like DMC or DEC react strongly with Li_0.81C₆ and that robust passivating layers do not form. By contrast, the cyclic carbonate, EC, creates a robust passivating film that limits the rate of reaction between Li_0.81C₆ and EC as the temperature increases. X-ray diffraction shows that the addition of LiPF₆ to EC/DEC changes the surface film that forms on Li_0.81C₆ at elevated temperature to one dominated by LiF instead of lithium-alkyl carbonate or lithium carbonate. This increases the thermal stability of Li_0.81C₆ in LiPF₆ electrolyte compared to pure EC/DEC solvent. By an apparently similar mechanism, the addition of only 0.2 M LiBOB to EC/DEC greatly improves the thermal stability of Li_0.81C₆. ARC results for Li_0.81C₆ in pure and mixed salt LiPF₆ and LiBOB EC/DEC electrolytes of various molarities shed light on the reasons for the beneficial effect of the salts.     

偏氟乙烯-六氟丙烯共聚物电解质研究

以偏氟乙烯-六氟丙烯共聚物〔P(VdF-HFP)〕、LiClO4/碳酸二甲酯(DMC)/碳酸乙烯酯(EC)或LiPF6/EC/DMC/碳酸二乙酯(DEC)和纳米SiO2为原料,用自然挥发法和相转移法制成聚合物电解质膜。测试结果表明:对LiClO4/DMC/EC体系,c(LiClO4)=1mol/L,w(SiO2)=7%时,室温(21℃)电导率达最大值2 81mS/cm,72℃时达9 6mS/cm;对LiPF6/EC/DMC/DEC体系,c(LiPF6)=1mol/L,m〔P(VdF-HFP)〕∶m(SiO2)=3∶2时,室温电导率为3 68mS/cm,72℃时达13 8mS/cm。扫描电镜(SEM)和X射线衍射分析(XRD)结果表明,电解质膜为非晶态的多孔结构,纳米SiO2粉末掺入可使微孔的数目明显增多,孔隙率增加,孔分布更均匀;傅里叶红外光谱(FTIR)结果显示,P(VdF-HFP)、增塑剂与LiClO4间存在相互作用。     

Electrochemical characteristics of phase-separated polymer electrolyte based on poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropane) and ethylene carbonate

A polymer electrolyte based on microporous poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropane) (PVdF-HFP) film was studied for use in lithium ion batteries. The microporous PVdF-HFP (Kynar 2801) matrix was prepared from a cast of homogeneous mixture of PVdF-HFP and solvents such as ethylene carbonate (EC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), and ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC). After evaporation of DMC and EMC, a sold film of the PVdF-HFP and the EC mixture was obtained. EC-rich phase started its formation in the PVdF-HFP/EC film at EC content of about 60 wt.% based on the total weight of PVdF-HFP and EC. The formation of the new phase resulted in the abrupt increase of the porosity of the PVdF-HFP matrix from 32 to 62%. The ionic conductivity of the film soaked in 1 M LiPF₆-EC/DMC=1/1 was significantly increased from order of 10⁻⁴ S/cm to order of 10⁻³ S/cm at the EC content of 60 wt.%. Thermal and spectroscopic investigations showed that most of the EC interact with PVdF-HFP with the EC content being below 60 wt.%. MCMB/polymer electrolyte/LiCoO₂ cells employing the microporous PVdF-HFP polymer film showed stable charging/discharging characteristics at 1C rate and good rate capability.     

碳酸二甲酯和乙醇酯交换合成碳酸二乙酯工艺研究

碳酸二乙酯分子结构中含有活性基团乙氧基和羰基,化学性质活泼,是一种重要的有机合成中间体、溶剂和性能优良的燃料添加剂,在化工领域具有很高的应用价值。以碳酸二甲酯和乙醇为原料,甲醇钠为催化剂,通过酯交换反应合成碳酸二乙酯。气相色谱分析表明,在酯与醇物质的量比1∶20、催化剂用量为碳酸二甲酯质量的1.0%、反应温度78 ℃和反应时间1 h条件下,碳酸二甲酯转化率达99%,碳酸二乙酯和碳酸甲乙酯选择性分别为86%和14%。     

High flash point electrolyte for use in lithium-ion batteries

The high flash point solvent adiponitrile (ADN) was investigated as co-solvent with ethylene carbonate (EC) for use as lithium-ion battery electrolyte. The flash point of this solvent mixture was more than 110 °C higher than that of conventional electrolyte solutions involving volatile linear carbonate components, such as diethyl carbonate (DEC) or dimethyl carbonate (DMC). The electrolyte based on EC:ADN (1:1 wt) with lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF₄) displayed a conductivity of 2.6 mS cm⁻¹ and no aluminum corrosion. In addition, it showed higher anodic stability on a Pt electrode than the standard electrolyte 1 M lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆) in EC:DEC (3:7 wt). Graphite/Li half cells using this electrolyte showed excellent rate capability up to 5C and good cycling stability (more than 98% capacity retention after 50 cycles at 1C). Additionally, the electrolyte was investigated in NCM/Li half cells. The cells were able to reach a capacity of 104 mAh g⁻¹ at 5C and capacity retention of more than 97% after 50 cycles. These results show that an electrolyte with a considerably increased flash point with respect to common electrolyte systems comprising linear carbonates, could be realized without any negative effects on the electrochemical performance in Li-half cells.     

In situ FTIR study of the Cu electrode/ethylene carbonate + dimethyl carbonate solution interface

The interfacial phenomena between Cu electrode and solution of lithium perchlorate in ethylene carbonate (EC)-dimethyl carbonate (DMC) have been investigated using in situ reflection absorption Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and single reflection ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. The ATR spectra confirmed the bands due to free EC and DMC and the molecules solvated to lithium ions in the solution. The bands due to the result of the interaction between ClO₄⁻ and DMC in the mixture solution also appeared in the ATR spectra. In the FTIR spectra, the potential dependence on the concentration of EC and DMC in the vicinity of the Cu electrode was observed. It was understood that the reversible changes in the concentration of free EC and DMC and solvated EC and DMC in the diffuse double layer take place with changing in potential. As the potential decreased, the free EC and DMC concentrations increased, while the concentration of the EC and DMC solvated to lithium ions decreased. Thus, it can be concluded that the equilibrium shifts from Li⁺(EC)₂(DMC)₂ to Li⁺(EC)₂(DMC) + DMC or Li⁺(EC)(DMC)₂ + EC as the potential decreases. The bands due to (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂ and CH₃OCO₂Li were observed for an irreversible reaction.     

Synthesis of organic carbonates from alcoholysis of urea: A review

Organic carbonates are green compounds with a wide range of applications. They are widely used for the synthesis of important industrial compounds including monomers, polymers, surfactants, plasticizers, and also used as fuel additives. They can be divided into two main classes: cyclic and linear carbonates. Dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC) are the important linear carbonates. Carbonyl and alkyl groups present in DMC and DEC make them reactive and versatile for synthesizing various other important compounds. Ethylene carbonate (EC), glycerol carbonate (GC) and propylene carbonate (PC) are well-known cyclic organic carbonates. Phosgenation of alcohols was widely used for synthesis of organic carbonates; however, toxicity of raw materials restricted use of phosgenation method. A number of new non-phosgene methods including alcoholysis of urea, carbonylation of alcohols using CO₂, oxy-carbonylation of alcohols, and trans-esterfication of alcohols and carbonates have been developed for synthesizing organic carbonates. Carbonylation of alcohols is preferred as it helps in utilization and sequestration of CO₂, however, poor thermodynamics due to high stability of CO₂ is the major obstacle in its large scale commercialization. Oxy-carbonylation of alcohols offers high selectivity but presence of oxygen poisons the catalyst. Recently, alcoholysis of urea has received more attention because of its inexpensive abundant raw materials, favorable thermodynamics, and no water-alcohol azeotrope formation. Also, ammonia evolved in this synthesis route can be recycled back to urea by reacting it with CO₂. In other words, this method is a step towards utilization of CO₂ as well. This article reviews synthesis of DMC, DEC, GC, PC, and EC from urea by critically examining various catalysts used and their performances. Mechanisms have been reviewed in order to give an insight of the synthesis routes. Research challenges along with future perspectives have also been discussed.     

碳酸二甲酯-碳酸二乙酯二元体系汽液平衡数据的测定与关联

采用双循环汽液平衡釜测定了101.33 kPa下碳酸二甲酯-碳酸二乙酯二元体系在363.3—398.9 K的汽液平衡数据。实验数据经面积积分法检验符合热力学一致性。分别采用Wilson和NRTL模型对该实验数据进行了关联,利用关联出的模型参数计算相应的汽相组成,并与实验值比较,其平均偏差小于0.004 6,表明二者符合良好,这为建立碳酸二甲酯和碳酸二乙酯的精馏分离数学模型提供了基础数据。     

Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of lithium-ion battery electrolytes

Two different separator materials (polyethylene fleece – Freudenberg 2190 and porous glass fiber – Whatman^® GF/D) and two different lithium-ion battery electrolytes have been investigated regarding their behavior in an autoclave extraction with supercritical helium head pressure carbon dioxide (sc HHPCO₂). Mixtures of dimethyl carbonate (DMC)/ethylene carbonate (EC) and ethylmethyl carbonate (EMC)/EC, each with 1 mol/L LiPF₆ were used.In addition to these proof of principle experiments, the developed extraction method was further applied to real battery samples. Commercial 18650 cells (after formation and aging) were opened and the jelly roll was extracted with sc HHPCO₂. Extracts were analyzed with gas and ion chromatography (GC, IC). Recovery rates and extract compositions strongly depend on the material of which the electrolyte is extracted. Further structure determination of electrolyte aging products was performed with different ionization modes in GC–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) experiments. Diethyl carbonate (DEC), dimethyl-2,5-dioxahexane dicarboxylate (DMDOHC), ethylmethyl-2,5-dioxahexane dicarboxylate (EMDOHC) and diethyl-2,5-dioxahexane dicarboxylate (DEDOHC) are aging products of electrolyte degradation which were successfully extracted and identified. Their concentrations correlate with solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth on the negative electrode which was investigated with scanning electron microscopy (SEM).     

A study of electrochemical kinetics of lithium ion in organic electrolytes

Limiting current densities equivalent to the transport-controlling step of lithium ions in organic electrolytes were measured by using a rotating disk electrode (RDE). The diffusion coefficients of lithium ion in the electrolyte of PC/LiClO₄, EC : DEC/LiPF₆ and EC : DMC/LiPF₆ were determined by the limiting current density data according to the Levich equation. The diffusion coefficients increased in the order of PC/LiClO₄<EC : DEC/LiPF₆<EC : DMC/ LiPF₆ with respect to molar concentration of lithium salt. The maximum value of diffusivity was 1.39x10-5cm²/s for 1M LiPF₆ in EC : DMC=1 : 1. Exchange current densities and transfer coefficients of each electrolyte were determined according to the Butler-Volmer equation.     

Surface layer formation on Sn anode: ATR FTIR spectroscopic characterization

Surface layer formed on Sn thin film electrode in 1 M LiPF₆/EC:DMC electrolyte was characterized using ex situ FTIR spectroscopy with the attenuated total reflection technique. IR spectral analyses showed that the immersion of Sn film in the electrolyte resulted in a chemical interfacial reaction leading to the passivation of Sn surface with primarily PF-containing inorganic surface species and small amount of organics. When constant current cycling was conducted with lithium cells with Sn film electrode at 0.1-1.0 V vs. Li/Li⁺, the interfacial reaction between Sn and electrolyte appeared significantly intensified that the features of PF-containing species became enhanced and new IR features of organic species (e.g. alkyl carbonate/carboxylate metal salts and ester functionalities) were observed. The surface layer continued to form with cycling, partly due to non-effective surface passivation as well as particle pulverization accompanied by enlargement of active surface area. Comparative IR spectral analyses indicated that the interfacial reaction between Sn and PF₆⁻ anion played a leading role in forming the surface layer, which is different from lithiated graphite that had mainly organic surface species. The data contribute to a better understanding of the interfacial processes occurring on Sn-based anode materials in lithium-ion batteries.     

Electrochemical properties of non-aqueous electrolytes containing spiro-type ammonium salts

Electrochemical properties of organic solvent electrolytes containing salt additive were investigated by means of cyclic voltammetry, ionic conductivity and charge–discharge curve. The electrolyte was prepared by a mixture of propylene carbonate (PC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC), tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF₄) and spiro-1,1′-bipyrolidinium tetrafluoroborate (SBPBF₄) as a salt additive. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the effect of spiro-type quaternary ammonium salt on electrochemical properties. The bulk resistance of the mixture electrolytes and interfacial resistance were investigated using an AC impedance method. The result shows that SBPBF₄ has good solubility in PC/DMC and the ionic conductivity is comparable to TEABF₄ in PC/DMC. From the experimental results, by using the SBPBF₄ salt, the interfacial resistance was decreased and capacity and ionic conductivity were increased. These results may be due to the higher mobility or ion dissociation of the SBP cation with smaller ion size than the TEA cation against the meso- or micro-pores of the activated carbons electrode.     

乙酰乙酸乙酯金属配合物催化丁二酸二甲酯和碳酸乙烯酯的耦合反应

研究了乙酰乙酸乙酯金属配合物催化碳酸乙烯酯(EC)和丁二酸二甲酯(DMSu)同时合成聚丁二酸乙二醇酯(PES)预聚体和碳酸二甲酯(DMC)耦合反应新工艺。结果表明,以乙酰乙酸乙酯锌为催化剂,反应温度205～215℃,n(乙酰乙酸乙酯锌)/n(EC+DMSu)=0.001,n(EC)/n(DMSu)=4,反应时间1 h时,DMC收率为52.3%,PES的特性黏度为0.117 4 dL/g。     

Characteristics of PVdF‐HFP/TiO2 Composite Electrolytes Prepared by a Phase Inversion Technique Using Dimethyl Acetamide Solvent and Water Non‐Solvent

Summary: Highly porous poly[(vinylidene fluoride)‐co‐hexafluoropropylene] (PVdF‐HFP)/TiO₂ membranes were prepared by a phase inversion technique, using dimethyl acetamide (DMAc) as a solvent and water as a non‐solvent. Their physical and electrochemical properties were then characterized in terms of thermal and crystalline behavior, as well as ionic conductivity after absorbing an electrolyte solution of 1 M LiPF₆ dissolved in an equal weight mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC). For comparison, cast films and their electrolytes were also made by a conventional casting method without using the water non‐solvent. In contrast to the case of using N‐methyl‐2‐pyrrolidone (NMP) as a solvent, the PVdF‐HFP/TiO₂ composite electrolytes, obtained using DMAc, exhibited superior properties of electrochemical stability and interfacial resistance with a lithium electrode but had lower ionic conductivities. It was also demonstrated that the phase inversion membrane was more effective than the cast film as the polymer electrolyte of a lithium rechargeable battery. As a result, a phase inversion membrane with 50 wt.‐% TiO₂ was demonstrated to be the optimal choice for application in a lithium rechargeable battery.

Time evolutions of interfacial resistance between polymer electrolyte and lithium electrodes.     

Behaviour of highly crystalline graphitic materials in lithium-ion cells with propylene carbonate containing electrolytes: An in situ Raman and SEM study

The microcrystalline flaked graphites SFG6 and SFG44 were evaluated with regard to their compatibility with propylene carbonate (PC) by in situ Raman microscopy and postmortem scanning electron microscopy (SEM) study. PC is employed as electrolyte component in lithium-ion batteries. However, when used with certain types of graphitic materials, exfoliation occurs. To compare the effects of exfoliation, the first lithium insertion properties of these graphitic materials were measured with in situ Raman microscopy. Lithium half-cells containing either 1 M LiClO₄ 1:1 (w/w) ethylene carbonate (EC):dimethyl carbonate (DMC) or 1:1 (w/w) EC:PC were investigated. The commencement of the exfoliation process was detected in SFG44 EC:PC by the appearance of a shoulder band at 1597 cm⁻¹ on the G-band (1584 cm⁻¹) below 0.9 V versus Li/Li⁺. The band (assigned as the exfoliation or E-band) at higher wavenumbers (1597 cm⁻¹) corresponded to solvated lithium ions intercalated into graphite. The in situ Raman spectra of SFG6 in EC:DMC or EC:PC and SFG44 in EC:DMC did not show the E-band and instead displayed regular lithium intercalation spectra.In situ Raman microscopy and SEM were further employed to study the exfoliation process observed for SFG44 in 1:1 (w/w) EC:PC, when the potential was held under steady-state conditions at 0.8, 0.6 and 0.3 V, respectively. A blue-shift in the E-band from 1597 to 1607 cm⁻¹ was observed as the potential was lowered. SEM images showed dissimilar degrees of exfoliation at these three potentials.     

碳酸二甲酯与碳酸二乙酯酯交换合成碳酸甲乙酯的研究

以Al2O3/SiO2为催化剂考察了碳酸二甲酯和碳酸二乙酯在液相条件下酯交换合成碳酸甲乙酯的过程.研究了活性组分负载量、催化剂用量、反应温度、反应时间等条件对酯交换反应的影响,并通过NH3-TPD和N2吸附脱附等手段对催化剂进行了表征.结果表明:以SiO2为载体,Al2O3负载量为12%的催化剂对碳酸二甲酯与碳酸二乙酯...     

超临界CO2萃取反应合成碳酸二甲酯

实验测定了不同条件下碳酸二甲酯(DMC)、甲醇、乙二醇(EG)、碳酸乙烯酯(EC)在超临界相和液相中的分配系数,计算了DMC相对于其他组分的分离因子. DMC相对于甲醇的分离因子随EC浓度的升高而降低,随DMC和EG含量增加而升高,随压力增加而增大,随温度升高而变小. 这种变化规律表明利用超临界萃取与反应耦合提高酯交换反应转化率的前提是：(1) 反应体系中DMC的浓度要高,即进料中环氧乙烷(EO)的浓度要高,且EC转化率要高;(2) 低的反应温度和高的反应压力. 在160℃和5~20 MPa下,以环氧乙烷、甲醇和CO2为原料,考察了超临界CO2萃取与反应相耦合提高酯交换反应转化率的可行性. 研究结果表明,DMC与甲醇间的分离因子是影响超临界萃取反应操作过程中DMC收率的关键因素. 采用耦合技术可以提高DMC的单级收率约4%以上.     

无水硅酸钠催化酯交换合成碳酸二甲酯

以廉价的Na2Si O3·9H2O为原料,通过简单的焙烧处理,制备了系列无水硅酸钠,并将其作为固体碱催化剂应用于碳酸乙烯酯(EC)与CH3OH酯交换合成碳酸二甲酯(DMC)的反应。采用TG-DTA、XRD和Hammett指示剂法对无水Na2Si O3进行表征。结果表明,焙烧温度对无水Na2Si O3的碱强度、总碱量及催化活性没有显著影响。当焙烧温度为200℃时,样品(Na2Si O3-200)的碱强度(Ho)为15.0~18.4,总碱量为10.9 mmol/g。以Na2Si O3-200为催化剂,考察了原料配比、温度和时间对酯交换合成DMC反应的影响。当CH3OH与EC的摩尔比为10∶1,在65℃反应2 h后,EC转化率与DMC收率可分别达到89%和88%。即使在室温条件下,Na2Si O3-200也能有效地催化EC与甲醇酯交换反应的进行。此外,经过4次使用后,Na2Si O3-200的催化活性没有出现明显下降的趋势。     

Synthesis of diethyl carbonate from ethanol through different routes: A thermodynamic and comparative analysis

In this study, thermodynamic analysis of various possible synthesis routes of diethyl carbonates (DEC), a benign organic carbonate, was carried out and a comparative analysis was performed. Chemical equilibrium constants at standard conditions were calculated using Gibbs free energy of the system. The Benson group contribution method was used to estimate standard heat of formation and standard entropy change of some raw materials/components like dimethyl carbonate. Variation of heat capacity (C_p) with temperature was estimated for different components from the Rozicka‐Domalski model. Variation of chemical equilibrium constants with temperature and pressure was studied for various routes. Synthesis of DEC from ethylene carbonate (EC) was also found to be better considering equilibrium constants at room temperature. The CO₂ route was found to be the most unfavourable route for DEC synthesis due to stability of CO₂ molecules. Moreover, DEC synthesis through the urea route was found to be best at high temperatures since the equilibrium constants were found to increase exponentially. Experiments were conducted for DEC synthesis using the EC route at two temperatures. Activity coefficients were calculated using the UNIFAC model. Experimentally and theoretically determined chemical equilibrium constant values were found to be similar. PRO/II was also used to minimize Gibbs free energy of the system and estimate the equilibrium constants and the results were comparable with those obtained by the equilibrium constant method and the trend was found to be the same for both the methods.