Vegetable Oils Replace Pork Backfat for Low-Fat Frankfurters

Low-fat frankfurters (10% fat, 12.5% protein) with olive, corn, sunflower or soybean oils, compared to control (29.1% animal fat, 10.4% protein) had 67% lower total fat, 40–45% lower saturated fatty acids, 50–53% lower calories, reduced cholesterol and 20% higher meat protein. Although they had darker red color they were 6–7.2% lower in processing yield and had higher purge accumulation, were firmer and less juicy. The type oil had no effect (P>0.05) on these characteristics but affected fatty acid composition. Frankfurters with olive oil had 41.8% higher monounsaturated fatty acids and those with seed oils 5–7 times higher polyunsaturated fatty acids. Soybean oil increased lin-olenic acid content and negatively affected overall acceptability and shelf-life.     

Physical Characteristics and Microstructure of Reduced-fat Frankfurters as Affected by Salt and Emulsified Fats Stabilized with Nonmeat Proteins

Functional properties and microstructure of frankfurters containing 1.5% or 2.5% salt and 15% pre-emulsified fat (PEF) stabilized with 2% pea protein, soy protein, or sodium caseinate were studied. With the exception of frankfurters with pea protein and 1.5% NaCl, all the others made with PEF" had greater (p < 0.01) thermal stability than all-meat frankfurters. Frankfurters containing soy protein or sodium caseinate had greater (p < 0.01) shear force than those with pea protein. Reducing NaCl in the frankfurters containing PEF did not influence the shear force. Microstructure examination revealed that many fat globules were entrapped physically within soy protein or sodium caseinate, which stabilized the meat emulsions and contributed to a firmer texture. Key Words: emulsified fat, reduced-fat, low-salt, microstructure, frankfurters     

Effects of Preblending, Reduced Fat and Salt Levels on Frankfurter Characteristics

Frankfurters were manufactured from preblended (PB) or nonpreblended (NPB) meats to contain traditional and reduced levels of salt (1.5, 2.0, or 2.5%) and/or fat (17%= low; 25%= high). Emulsions stability, color, Kramer shear and palatability were evaluated. Salt had a positive effect on emulsion stability (p<0.05). Low-fat frankfurters were darker, redder, less blue in color, drier and more resistant to shear than high-fat frankfurters. Low-fat franks containing 1.5% salt had a softer texture than those containing 2.0 or 2.5% salt. Preblending did not affect textural properties. With modification of the formulations, low fat-low salt franks can be manufactured.     

Sensory Attributes and Instron Measurements of Reduced-Nitrite Poultry Frankfurters With Sorbic Acid or Potassium Sorbate

Poultry frankfurters (0 and 40 ppm nitrite) with sorbic acid or potassium sorbate were studied. Flavor characteristics were influenced by nitrite but not by ascorbic acid or potassium sorbate. Frankfurters with sorbic acid were softer and those with potassium sorbate were firmer than those without. Nitrite alone increased firmness. Sorbic acid appeared to counteract that increased firmness and potassium sorbate enhanced the increase in firmness when those compounds were used in combination with nitrite in the poultry frankfurters. Simulated-teeth attachments for the Inston gave results similar to sensory firmness scores. Frankfurters with sorbic acid added had lower pH than frankfurters from other treatments.     

Optimizing Quality of Frankfurters Containing Oat Bran and Added Water

Chicken frankfurters fat content was decreased by using various levels of oat bran and added water and evaluated for quality. Frankfurters with higher levels of oat bran had less expressible moisture and required higher shear stress to break. There were no difference in springiness among frankfurters made with different levels of oat bran; however, those with higher oat bran were rated less juicy and more grainy by taste panelists. The addition of water increased intensities of strain, springiness and juiciness, but decreased shear stress and hardness values. Contour plots showed optimum formulation at <2% oat bran 20% of added water.     

Low-fat Frankfurters with Elevated Levels of Water and Oleic Acid

The effects of simultaneous incorporation of maximum allowable levels of water and high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) on frankfurter properties were investigated. The formulation changes generally had little effect on processing yield. Frankfurters formulated with HOSO were 180-241% higher in the ratio of total monounsaturated fatty acids to total saturated fatty acids when compared to control products with similar total fat levels. Consumer-panel sensory data and instrumental texture profile data indicated that low-fat (14-16%), high-water, HOSO frankfurters- were as acceptable as control frankfurters with 28% fat (all-animal fat) and did not have the texture problems observed previously with low-fat, HOSO frankfurters without extra added water.     

Calcium Fortified, Reduced Fat Beef Emulsion Product

Characteristics were investigated on a 15%/25%, fat/added water beef frankfurter supplemented with calcium (calcium carbonate or calcium-citrate-malate complex, CCM) to meet 25, 50, 75 or 100% of adult U.S. RDA in one 45g frankfurter. Controls contained 15%/25% or 30%/10% fat/added water. Compared to controls, calcium addition did not reduce yield although batters containing CCM had lower viscosity (P<0.05). During storage, pH of calcium added frankfurters increased about 0.35 units. Frankfurters formulated with 100% levels for calcium were least acceptable to sensory panelists. Frankfurters were softer and had less springiness and chewiness (P<0.05) when supplemented with 100% levels for calcium.     

Textural Properties of Chicken Frankfurters with Added Collagen Fibers

Chicken frankfurters made with 0, 2, 4, 6, 8% added collagen fibers and 10, 15, 20, 25, 30% added water were evaluated for textural differences using a torsion test and sensory texture profile analysis. Frankfurters with high amounts of added water and low amounts of collagen fibers had lower shear stress values. Sensory analysis indicated that both collagen fibers and added water had significant influences (P<0.05) on hardness, springiness and juiciness. The addition of collagen fibers resulted in harder, springier, and less juicy frankfurters. Added water resulted in softer, less springy and juicier frankfurters. Response surface methodology demonstrated that for 2% added collagen, the optimum added water was ～20%.     

Influence of protein isolate from lupin seeds (Lupinus albus ssp. Graecus) on processing and quality characteristics of frankfurters

Lupin protein isolate (92% protein) from seeds of Lupinus albus ssp. Graecus (LSPI) was used as powder ingredient for the manufacture of frankfurters at levels 0, 1, 2 and 3% of the formulation weight. Additional 1% water was added during batter formulation to each 1% protein used. LSPI increased (P < 0.05) the pH and viscosity of batter and reduced the jelly separation. Increasing the LSPI level resulted in higher (P < 0.05) processing yield and lower (P < 0.05) purge accumulation, redness and visual colour scores and hardness of frankfurters. Significant differences in overall acceptability were not found among the control and frankfurters with 1% and 2% LSPI. Frankfurters with 3% LSPI were judged as unacceptable. Incorporation of LSPI at 1% level either in hydrated form or as stabilizer in pre-emulsified fat improved the processing characteristics and overall acceptability of frankfurters made with LSPI as powder ingredient and did not affect the color and texture.     

Comparison of Rabbit, Beef, and Chicken Meats for Functional Properties and Frankfurter Processing

The functional properties of rabbit meat were compared with those of beef and chicken meats. Protein solubilities, water-holding capacities, emulsifying capacities, and binding strengths were approximately equal. Frankfurter emulsions made from rabbit and chicken were formed more easily than those from beef and were more stable. Frankfurters from beef were firmer and were coarser in texture. Sensory evaluations for flavor, texture, and overall acceptability demonstrated that frankfurters made from rabbit meat were equal to those from beef and slightly superior to those from chicken. Quality and sensory scores for rabbit frankfurters containing 15% protein, 20% fat and 1.7% salt were also very acceptable.     

Effects of Reduced Salt (NaCI) Levels on Sensory and Instrumental Evaluation of Frankfurters

Frankfurters were manufactured with beef-pork mixtures using commercial procedures and varying levels (2.5%, 2.0%, 1.5%, 1.0%) of two types of NaCl (granulated, flake). Parameters investigated were sensory color, texture, flavor and overall acceptability, and instrumental texture and color during storage at 8°C. Sensory scores for color were acceptable and similar among treatments with varying salt levels, except for products with 1.0% salt. As emulsion stability decreased, however, frankfurter skin color became darker. In general, a reduction in salt by more than 20% (<2.0% salt) resulted in frankfurters of softer and less firm texture. Scores for flavor and overall acceptability were lower (P<0.05) for frankfurters with 1.5% or 1.0% vs 2.5% salt and deteriorated with increasing storage for all salt treatments. Flavor deterioration with storage was more pronounced in products with reduced salt levels (1.5% and 1.0%).     

Physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters as affected by walnut and fat content

This study evaluates the physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters with 25% added walnut (WF) versus low-fat frankfurters (6% pork fat) (LF) and traditional frankfurters (18% pork fat) (NF). Results reveal that cooking losses were unaffected (p ? 0.05) by the formulation of frankfurters. The addition of walnut led to higher (p < 0.05) redness and yellowness values, while colour parameters did not differ significantly between LF and NF sausages. Frankfurters with added walnut (WF) presented higher (p < 0.05) hardness and chewiness values than LF and NF frankfurters. Differences in composition were also accompanied by changes in the microstructure of the gel/emulsions. Frankfurters with added walnut presented a flavour significantly different from meat and scored lower (p < 0.05) on texture preferences. However, all frankfurters scored the same for overall acceptability.     

Optimizing palm oil and palm stearin utilization for sensory and textural properties of chicken frankfurters

This study was designed to explore the potential of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil (PO) and palm stearin (POs) utilization in chicken frankfurters. A 10 points augmented simplex-centroid design was used to study the effect of chicken fat (CF), PO and POs as well as the interaction of these fats on the emulsion, textural and sensory properties of chicken frankfurters. All frankfurters were formulated to contain approx 25% fat, 52% moisture and 10% protein. No significant difference was found in end chopping temperatures of all meat batters even though the temperature of PO and POs upon incorporation into meat batters was 50°C higher than CF. Strong emulsions were formed as no fluid losses were observed in all the meat batters tested after heating. Texture profiles of the frankfurters containing PO and/or CF were quite similar, but increment of POs raised hardness, chewiness, and shear hardness of the frankfurters. Acceptability of the frankfurters was evaluated using hedonic test. Panelists found no difference in hardness preference between frankfurters made from totally CF and PO, while frankfurters made from POs were rated as hard and brittle. CF was important in determining acceptability of the frankfurters, as reduction of CF in formulation resulted in lower scores in chicken flavor, juiciness, oiliness and overall acceptance of the frankfurters. Frankfurters with sensory acceptability comparable to a commercial one were found to comprise of more than 17% CF, and less than 67% PO and 17% POs of the fat blend.     

Chemical effects of smoke processing on frankfurter quality and palatability characteristics

Frankfurters were made by standard commercial practices except for the smoke treatment which involved four different methods: solid smoke-aerosol, liquid smoke-aerosol, liquid smoke-external dip and liquid smoke-internal mix. For control purposes, frankfurters were prepared without any smoke treatment. All frankfurters were packaged and stored at 5°C with samples removed for analyses weekly for three weeks. All smoke-processing treatments resulted in products assessed as overall acceptable with the experienced sensory panel unable to detect differences among the various methods of manufacture except for the franks made by mixing liquid smoke in the emulsion. However, the flavour scores of those products subjected to external smoke-processing treatments were higher and more acceptable than the other two treatments. Frankfurters manufactured using aerosol smoke treatments were rated by sensory panellists as the most tender. However, shear force measurements indicated that those franks processed with external liquid smoke treatments were somewhat less tender. Liquid smoke-processing techniques favoured the development of a more desirable cured colour. The most stable colour was attributed to the liquid smoke-processing system in which the smoke materials were mixed in the emulsion. All palatability properties (sensory and colour) were highly correlated with the smokiness of the product. Generally, storage time had little effect on frankfurter palatability characteristics.     

PROCESSING CHARACTERISTICS AND YIELD OF PORK FRANKFURTERS MANUFACTURED FROM GILTS ADMINISTERED EXOGENOUS PORCINE SOMATOTROPIN

Eighteen gilts (75 kg) were injected daily with 0, 2.5, or 5 mg of porcine somatotropin (pST) for either 30 or 31 days prior to slaughter to examine the effects of dose of pST administration to swine on processing characteristics of frankfurters manufactured from pork. Frankfurters were manufactured from New York shoulders (NAMP #404) and formulated with fat from the same carcass to a final product target of 22% fat and 10% added water. Frankfurters from pST- treated gilts had lower smokehouse yields (0.9% decrease; P <.005) and greater shear force peak height (35.4% increase; P < 0.05) compared with the controls. The increased shear force required for skin failure of frankfurters manufactured from pork from pST-treated pigs was not readily explained by other differences due to treatment (e.g., cooking stability, batter proximate composition or salt soluble protein content; all P > 0.05)     

PRODUCTION OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS WITH VEGETABLE OILS FOLLOWING THE DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR FATTY ACIDS

Low-fat frankfurters (10% fat) were produced with vegetable oils following the dietary guidelines for fatty acids as suggested in the currently recommended diet (CRD) by the American Heart Association, the Grundy diet (GD) and the Mediterranean diet (MD). MD-frankfurters, produced with olive oil (31.82%) and soybean oil (17.51%), had the highest (P<0.05) ratio of monousaturated fatty acids (MUFA)/saturated fatty acids (SFA) minus stearic. CRD-frankfurters, produced mainly with cottonseed oil (40.70%) and soybean oil (6.90%), had the highest (P<0.05) content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). GD-frankfurters, produced with cottonseed oil (34.04%) and olive oil (15.19%), had the highest (P<0.05) ratio of (C18:2 n-6)/(C18:3 n-3). Compared to high-fat frankfurters (27% all animal fat), low-fat frankfurters had lower (P<0.05) stearic acid and trans ω-9 oleic acid, higher (P<0.05) content of total PUFA, higher (P<0.05) ratio of (C18:2+C 18:3)/SFA minus stearic acid, and lower cholesterol content (52.60%-59.11%), were darker, redder and more yellow, firmer and less juicy, but had similar overall acceptabily.     

EFFECTS OF AN AUTOLYZED YEAST ON PHYSICAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF FRANKFURTERS

Three experiments were conducted to determine effects of autolyzed yeast on frankfurter firmness, flavor, and yields. Smokehouse yields of laboratory prepared frankfurters (Experiment #1) were not affected (P < 0.05) by addition of autolyzed yeast (1%). Commercially produced frankfurters containing 0%, 1.0%, or 1.5% yeast (Experiment #2) or 0%, 0.75% or 1.0% yeast (Experiment #3) were subjected to sensory and yield evaluations. Frankfurters from Experiment #2, with 1% autolyzed yeast were more firm (P < .10) than control frankfurters. Frankfurters from Experiment #3 with 0.75% and 1.0% autolyzed yeast were more firm (P < .01, P < .10) than controls. Vacuum packaged frankfurters containing yeast (Experiments #2 and #3), held 2, 4, or 6 weeks at 2–5°C, had less purge than their respective controls. Autolyzed yeast appeaers to enhance frankfurter flavor and firmness while reducing purge in vacuum packaged product.     

Effect of reheating on viability of a five-strain mixture of Listeria monocytogenes in vacuum-sealed packages of frankfurters following refrigerated or frozen storage

The purpose of this study was to assess consumer preferences for storing and reheating frankfurters and to use this information to assess the effect of product formulation and storage times and temperatures on the viability of Listeria monocytogenes after reheating of frankfurters. Individual links were inoculated with about 8.0 log CFU per package of a five-strain mixture of the pathogen, vacuum sealed, and stored at 4 degrees C for 3 and 15 days and at -18 degrees C for 30 days. Frankfurters formulated with and without 2% added potassium lactate were heated to a surface temperature of 60, 70, 80, or 90 degrees C for up to 8 min by submersing the packages in a thermostatically controlled circulating water bath. Surviving bacteria were recovered and counted by rinsing the contents of each package with sterile peptone water and plating this solution directly onto modified Oxford selective agar plates. In general, the results revealed that about a 5-log unit reduction was achieved by reheating to a surface temperature of 70 degrees C for about 2 min or 80 or 90 degrees C for about 0.6 min regardless of storage conditions or formulation. Product formulation did not appreciably affect the viability of the pathogen after heating; there was no appreciable difference in the number of cells surviving the heat treatment in product prepared with or without potassium lactate. These findings can be used to establish reheating guidelines for consumers to ensure that frankfurters, which may become contaminated with low levels of L. monocytogenes prior to packaging and after unpackaging, are adequately reheated prior to consumption.     

CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS MANUFACTURED WITH MODIFIED BEEF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

A 3 fat level (8%, 16% and 24%, finished weight basis) × 5 modified connective tissue level (0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%, meat block basis) complete factorial design was employed to characterize frankfurters manufactured with modified beef connective tissue (MCT). Thermal processing yields improved 2–3% with the addition of 20% or more MCT. Level of MCT did not affect average consumer cook yields. Kramer Shear parameters were higher with higher levels of MCT. Frankfurter cohesiveness declined with an increase in MCT. A consumer panel found low-fat frankfurters to be less desirable in almost all traits than high fat products. Frankfurters with 10–20% MCT were as desirable as controls (0% MCT). Frankfurter external and internal color was lighter as level of MCT increased. Frankfurters with MCT were rated as desirable by a consumer sensory panel, and had color and yields similar to higher fat products.