Ecological networks: A spatial concept for multi-actor planning of sustainable landscapes

In this paper, we propose the ecological network concept as a suitable basis for inserting biodiversity conservation into sustainable landscape development. For landscapes to be ecologically sustainable, the landscape structure should support those ecological processes required for the landscape to deliver biodiversity services for present and future generations. We first show that in multifunctional, human-dominated landscapes, biodiversity conservation needs a coherent large-scale spatial structure of ecosystems. Theory and empirical knowledge of ecological networks provides a framework for the design of such structures. Secondly, ecological networks can bridge the paradox between reserve conservation (fixing nature in space and time) and development, which implies change. This is because ecological networks can change structure without losing their conservation potential. Thirdly, ecological networks facilitate stakeholder decision-making on feasible biodiversity goals. They help to focus on an effective spatial scale. We conclude that extending the ecological network concept with multifunctional indicators is a promising step towards sustainable landscape development and stakeholder decision-making.     

New challenges in the field of spatial planning: landscapes

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) highlights the landscape as an holistic concept, which is important for individual and social well being and for quality of life. Landscape questions tend today to fall between the responsibilities of different sectors of society. The implications of the Convention for giving 'landscape' a higher status in spatial planning are discussed. Important challenges for planning that need to be focused from a landscape approach are discussed: the growing urbanization; the development and new roles of the urban fringe areas; new infrastructure landscapes; the mental landscapes of tomorrow; an holistic approach to landscape ecological planning and environmental policies and the need for co-ordination of European planning issues that concern landscapes. Planning for good landscape qualities is not a new issue; many landscape architects and landscape planners have worked in the spirit of the ELC for decades. The importance of educating landscape architects and planners with an holistic approach is particularly addressed. Efforts for a more integrated landscape education, such as the European network LE:NOTRE, already exist and contribute to the implementation of the ELC.     

New challenges in the field of spatial planning: landscapes

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) highlights the landscape as an holistic concept, which is important for individual and social well being and for quality of life. Landscape questions tend today to fall between the responsibilities of different sectors of society. The implications of the Convention for giving ‘landscape’ a higher status in spatial planning are discussed. Important challenges for planning that need to be focused from a landscape approach are discussed: the growing urbanization; the development and new roles of the urban fringe areas; new infrastructure landscapes; the mental landscapes of tomorrow; an holistic approach to landscape ecological planning and environmental policies and the need for co‐ordination of European planning issues that concern landscapes. Planning for good landscape qualities is not a new issue; many landscape architects and landscape planners have worked in the spirit of the ELC for decades. The importance of educating landscape architects and planners with an holistic approach is particularly addressed. Efforts for a more integrated landscape education, such as the European network LE:NOTRE, already exist and contribute to the implementation of the ELC.     

Integrating time and the third spatial dimension in landscape structure analysis

Over the last decades, landscape metrics have been increasingly used to describe and analyse landscape structure. This article highlights some limitations of standard landscape structure analysis approaches and examines four major developments in this field: ways of integrating the height dimension of surface and vegetation into landscape metrics, the delineation of ‘meaningful’ landscape units comprising the relief, the problem of relating pattern and scale, and the challenges posed by the analysis of the temporal dimension of landscapes. We demonstrate that (1) the integration of height information and gradients into the approach of landscape metrics is both necessary and possible by means of using digital elevation models from remote sensing and novel analysis techniques, (2) the delineation of 3-D landscape units has enormous potential and (3) there are useful methodical extensions for two-dimensional objects in spatiotemporal investigations of landscapes, namely for analysing land use change and for exploring the interrelations between landscape diversity and species diversity.     

Assessment of landscape composition and configuration via spatial metrics combination: conceptual framework proposal and method improvement

Landscape transformations have been a central topic in landscape ecology due to their influence on ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation. Landscape dynamics can be very complex and one of the most difficult issues to analyse is the contribution and the effects of landscape composition and configuration changes to the overall impact. We enhanced an existing approach designed to assess landscape transformation via metrics combination. Based on the area and the number of patches, we defined a Landscape Dynamics Typology (LDT) with eight different dynamics. The agro-forestry areas dynamics between 1990 and 2006, in Portugal, is presented as a practical example to show the implementation steps and the outputs obtained. A diagnostic tree is provided to help identify which dynamics are present. This new method provides detailed results concerning the location of the different dynamics within a landscape. The LDT is a versatile tool and is able to accommodate upgrades.     

Relationship between landscape visual attributes and spatial pattern indices: A test study in Mediterranean-climate landscapes

The analysis of the relationships between landscape visual quality and landscape structural properties is an active area of environmental perception research. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between landscape spatial pattern and the rating of visual aesthetic quality. Eight landscape photographs were evaluated for 11 visual attributes by 98 respondents. The scores obtained for these 11 attributes were subjected to principal components analysis in order to summarize the qualities used by the respondents and thus determine their visual preferences. For each photograph, three window sizes were defined (with respect to a landcover map) to cover the different areas corresponding to the visual field (foreground, mid-ground and background). The landscape spatial structure for each window was analyzed using spatial metrics. The correlation between each dimension and the spatial pattern indices of the landscape were then calculated. Positive correlations were obtained between visual aesthetic quality and a number of landscape pattern indices. The results suggest that landscape heterogeneity might be an important factor in determining visual aesthetic quality.     

River landscapes and sustainable development: a framework for project appraisal and catchment management

Sustainable development will remain a holy grail until our institutional framework honours community participation in the husbandry of our natural resources through the process of decision-making over land use change at all levels. Concern over this prediction, and how to meet its challenge, is the essence of this article, with the focus on river landscape as the broad indicator of the health of the catchment (claimed by the late Noel Hynes). A review of some of the current 'best practice' and their recent history, from policy to projects, affecting the river environment draws on lessons learned in the UK and abroad.     

Transforming landscapes and identities in the south Wales valleys

Abstract

In contrast to the declining socio-economic legacy of the loss of coalmining and heavy industry, the landscapes of the south Wales valleys have witnessed a remarkable environmental transformation within living memory. Yet an apparent paradox exists between reported community pride in these landscapes with emerging community-led economic initiatives, and seeming indifference towards or disconnection from them. In this paper, we draw upon analysis of qualitative material from two pieces of research in different Valleys’ localities to explore landscape relationships with respect to radical landscape changes, reported disconnections and emergent community-led countryside activities. We consider these in the context of emerging models and notions of landscape identities. We conclude that the changed landscape character in the Valleys is impacting on landscape perceptions, valuation and uses with new existential identities emerging amongst some. Greater insights into evolving landscape identities might inform better land use policy and natural resource management to bring about socio-economic and environmental benefits.     

The limits of realism: perceptions of virtual landscapes

Communicating planning results within expert groups or to local citizens is crucial to an efficient planning process. In the planning and design disciplines such as landscape and urban planning, recent digital 3D-visualizations have gained increased recognition. However, the validation of simulations of virtual landscapes, in terms of their degree of realism (R’Degree) has so far been neglected in research. This study concentrates on the question whether, how, and to which degree the real visually perceived landscape, represented through photographs, can be validly represented by means of virtual landscapes. The study area comprises the communities of Schwyz and Ingenbohl–Brunnen situated on Lake Lucerne in Central Switzerland.From a modelling point of view, landscapes are highly complex structures. Instead of manually modelling the virtual environment, which is the traditional CAD-approach, a GIS-based approach is pursued. This is the prerequisite for the efficient visualization of large data sets.The validity of the created virtual landscape is tested in an empirical study in which test persons are asked to order a set of real images and variations of the corresponding computer-generated images. In the experiment, approximately 75% of the test persons assigned the highest possible value (very high degree of realism) to one or more scenes of simulated landscapes. In order to achieve an even higher degree of realism, more and very detailed 3D-object-data and accompanying texture information would be necessary.     

The river landscapes of London and the Thames catchment: their status and future

Recent river landscape assessments of the eastern part of the Thames catchment have enabled a better understanding of their landscape status and value. These rivers have formed the focal point for human settlement and have been extensively affected by their use. Flood defence through channelization and surfacing of the watercourses has been highly detrimental to their landscape quality. Flooding has itself been exacerbated by catchment urbanization and by land drainage systems. The issues affecting the landscape planning and design of river systems are examined and suggestions made as to how they can be addressed.     

The coexistence of amenity and biodiversity in urban landscapes

Amenity is a long-standing component of town planning and municipal governance. Biodiversity is a far more recent concept, yet interpreting the conservation mandate in a local context is a significant challenge for landscape and urban planners. This article explores the concepts of amenity and biodiversity and investigates their compatibility in an urbanising world. Their historical expression in law and urban planning is considered, and empirical research on the links between human well-being, green environments and biodiversity is reviewed. We argue that amenity is an underutilised vehicle for achieving biodiversity goals in line with new urban greening paradigms because of its long-standing currency with planning professionals. However, conflict between biodiversity and amenity can arise in practice, depending on a city’s social–ecological context. These challenges can be overcome through setting clear objectives, utilising scientific evidence, engaging with local communities and ensuring landscape policy is sufficiently flexible to accommodate local needs and characteristics.     

Culture is new nature: comparing the restorative capacity of cultural and natural landscapes

Is the cultural landscape a restorative environment for mental stress? What is the restorative potential of cultural landscape, compared to the natural landscape? And what factors determine the restorative potential of cultural or natural landscape? These questions have not been studied previously. To fill the gap the present study conducts an experiment to compare the restorative capacity of cultural and natural landscapes in China, and explores the driving forces of 15 landscape characteristics on the restorative quality of the two landscape types. The results show that there are no significant differences of restoration between cultural and natural landscape. The 10 photographs representing cultural landscape have a bigger standard deviation (lower consensus) of restorative capacity than the 10 photographs representing natural landscape. More water features and the flat terrain are the significant promoters for the restoration of cultural landscape. Abundant colours, which usually imply a higher diversity of plant species, are vital to enhance the restorative capacity of natural landscape.     

Integrating Ecological,Social and Cultural Dimensions in the Implementation of the Landscape Convention

Implementation of the European Landscape Convention requires new tools that link ecological, social and cultural dimensions in practical planning. Here, we propose connectivity as a conceptual tool to include different dimensions into landscape and spatial planning. We present a short review of the connectivity concept in relation to ecological, social and cultural dimensions and illustrate it by examples from a real landscape planning case.     

The influence of forest management on landscape structure in the cool-temperate forest region of central Japan

Comprehension of historical changes in landscape and forest management will provide valuable insights into current ecosystems and biodiversity and will support future management decisions and conservation strategies. This study clarified changes in the forest landscape of the cool-temperate forest region of central Japan from 1947 to 1997. We used a geographic information system to reconstruct past forest landscapes at four times (1947, 1962, 1975, and 1997) based on interpretation of aerial photographs and landscape metrics calculated using the FRAGSTATS software for spatial pattern analysis. Our results showed that secondary forests, the dominant land use in 1947, decreased greatly in area and became more fragmented, whereas coniferous plantations, which occupied approximately 20% of the total land area in 1947, became the dominant land use (almost 40% of the total land) by 1997. The young coniferous plantations have been established at increasing elevations over time and were mainly created by conversion of secondary forest until 1975. The number of young coniferous plantations and their patch spacing depended on the type of forest management. In the study area, landscape structure changed in response to changes in management of national forests, especially the expansion of afforestation in the 1950s and 1960s and changes in harvesting systems.     

Agricultural landscapes between intensification and abandonment: the expectations of the public in a Central-Alpine cross-border region

The aim of this study is to find out what locals and tourists in a Central-Alpine, multilingual cross-border region expect from an Alpine landscape, with a special focus on agriculture. Using a standardised questionnaire, we carried out more than 3500 face-to-face interviews with locals and tourists in Tyrol (Austria) and South Tyrol (Italy). The questionnaire comprised (1) content-related questions and (2) questions to collect demographic data on the interviewees. We employed nonparametric methods to analyse the survey results and differences between demographic groups. More than 70% of the study participants liked traditional land-use and did not have major reservations about agricultural intensification or extensification. Of those interviewed, 73% were in favour of giving public financial support to farmers. The findings obtained in this study suggest broad acknowledgement and acceptance of environmental compensation schemes and the maintenance of extensive and traditional land-use systems.     

GIS在国外环境及景观规划中的应用

地理信息系统（GIS）是一个收集、储存、分析和传播地球上关于某一地区信息的系统，一个完整的GIS必须具备输入、存贮、操作和分析，表达输出四大功能，GIS以其强大的地理信息空间分析功能，在环境及景观规划项目中发挥着越来越重要的作用，它的发展与某些领域尤其是环境规划设计领域的实践是相互促进的，作为一个强大、灵活的决策系统，它不仅见于大范围的城市及地区规划，自然资源保护及管理，而且国外许多与城市景观设计相关的行业也正在接受这一技术，但它也存在着一些不足，目前GIS的分析与展示诸如噪声、能量平衡、城市气候等环境因子方面的能力，还是有限的。     

The neglect of aesthetics in landscape planning in Switzerland

In this paper, landscape is defined as any part of the Earth’s surface in which various aspects, such as terrestrial, aquatic, natural and cultural interact with differing dominance. Within landscapes, energy and material flows over time are major driving forces of landscape dynamics. Such a comprehensive approach to landscape should also be applied in landscape planning, however this is rarely the case in Switzerland. The concept of landscape aesthetics in particular is neglected, therefore, four theses are formulated and discussed in this paper.The tourist industry promotes Switzerland with pictures showing beautiful scenery. Some of the landscape elements shown, e.g. ecclesiastical buildings and historical profane buildings, are widely recognised for their aesthetic values, and scientifically examined by art historians and other disciplines. Strangely enough, this is not the case for cultural landscapes, despite the fact that they also reflect the history of human culture. This paradox evolves from the dichotomy between natural sciences and humanities. There is a lack of multi-, inter-, and trans-disciplinary approaches to studying cultural landscapes. The long-term genesis of the elements of the cultural landscape is illustrated by the typical structure of traditional cultural landscapes, i.e. “the hides of land” (i.e. strip-shaped forest clearings) (Hufenfluren).Between 1750 and 1850, many painters depicted the beauty of the traditional cultural landscape. Their paintings are acknowledged as a part of culture and treated accordingly, but this is not the case for the remains of the cultural landscape they painted. Comparing maps from different points in time reveal the loss of elements of cultural landscapes. Results show how traditional systems of land use led to highly structured landscapes, whereas today’s land-use levels out the scenery. Lack of public support significantly reduces the success of the legal tools to limit this process.     

关于城市园林景观规划建设的探讨

阐述了城市园林景观规划设计中需要遵循园林生态学的原理,介绍了我国城市园林景观规划建设中存在的问题,针对园林景观雷同、缺乏民族特色、植物配置不合理等问题,提出了强调园林景观的差异性,追求景观的美观性,重视植物景观中植物配置设计的多样性等改进措施。     

The role of surface characteristics in directing subsurface spatial planning processes: The case study of a high-speed railway in Slovenia

An increased need for subsurface use has been recently noticed. At the same time, problems concerning planning procedures, licensing issues and environmental impact assessments of subsurface projects have been recognised. This paper considers the applicability and usefulness of spatial modelling within the scope of planning, assessing and evaluating subsurface projects. As a case study a high-speed railway in Slovenia (HSR) was examined. Special emphasis was given to the role of surface characteristics in directing subsurface spatial planning processes, since the characteristics of the subsurface are often uncertain and not sufficiently represented in existing data. A new planning method consisting of three consecutive phases was developed. The approach was based on spatial vulnerability, attractiveness and suitability models, supported by GIS. The results of HSR planning showed, that the method is particularly useful if applied in the early planning phases. The results were aimed to support the decision-making process in order to proceed towards optimal spatial solutions for the project.