Evaluation of a hybrid pixel detector for electron microscopy

We describe the application of a silicon hybrid pixel detector, containing 64 by 64 pixels, each 170 microm(2), in electron microscopy. The device offers improved resolution compared to CCDs along with faster and noiseless readout. Evaluation of the detector, carried out on a 120 kV electron microscope, demonstrates the potential of the device.     

Scanning transmission X-ray microscopy with a fast framing pixel detector

Scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM) is a powerful imaging technique, in which a small X-ray probe is raster scanned across a specimen. Complete knowledge of the complex-valued transmission function of the specimen can be gained using detection schemes whose every-day use, however, is often hindered by the need of specialized configured detectors or by slow or noisy readout of area detectors. We report on sub-50 nm-resolution STXM studies in the hard X-ray regime using the PILATUS, a fully pixelated fast framing detector operated in single-photon counting mode. We demonstrate a range of imaging modes, including phase contrast and dark-field imaging.     

Direct electron imaging in electron microscopy with monolithic active pixel sensors

A new imaging device for dynamic electron microscopy is in great demand. The detector should provide the experimenter with images having sufficient spatial resolution at high speed. Immunity to radiation damage, accumulated during exposures, is critical. Photographic film, a traditional medium, is not adequate for studies that require large volumes of data or rapid recording and charge coupled device (CCD) cameras have limited resolution, due to phosphor screen coupling. CCD chips are not suitable for direct recording due to their extreme sensitivity to radiation damage. This paper discusses characterization of monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS) in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) as well as in a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The tested devices were two versions of the MIMOSA V (MV) chip. This 1M pixel device features pixel size of 17 x 17 microm(2) and was designed in a 0.6 microm CMOS process. The active layer for detection is a thin (less than 20 microm) epitaxial layer, limiting the broadening of the electron beam. The first version of the detector was a standard imager with electronics, passivation and interconnection layers on top of the active region; the second one was bottom-thinned, reaching the epitaxial layer from the bottom. The electron energies used range from a few keV to 30 keV for SEM and from 40 to 400 keV for TEM. Deterioration of the image resolution due to backscattering was quantified for different energies and both detector versions.     

A differentially pumped secondary electron detector for low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy

A new design of secondary electron (SE) detector is described for use in low-vacuum scanning electron microscopes. Its distinguishing feature is a separate detector chamber, which can be maintained at a pressure independent of the pressure in the specimen chamber. The two chambers are separated by a perforated membrane or mesh across which an electric field is applied, making it relatively transparent to low-energy electrons but considerably less so to the gas molecules. The benefits of this arrangement are discussed. The final means of detecting the electrons can be a conventional scintillator and photomultiplier arrangement or any of the methods using the ambient gas as an amplifying medium. Images obtained with the detector show good SE contrast and low backscattered electron contribution.     

Differential capacitance sensor as position detector for a magnetic suspension densimeter

A differential capacitance sensor has been used in the servosystem of a magnetic suspension densimeter to detect the position of a magnetic buoy. This type of sensor has not previously been used in this application. Its design, performance, and advantages are described.     

Medipix 2 detector applied to low energy electron microscopy

Low energy electron microscopy (LEEM) and photo-emission electron microscopy (PEEM) traditionally use microchannel plates (MCPs), a phosphor screen and a CCD-camera to record images and diffraction patterns. In recent years, however, MCPs have become a limiting factor for these types of microscopy. Here, we report on a successful test series using a solid state hybrid pixel detector, Medipix 2, in LEEM and PEEM. Medipix 2 is a background-free detector with an infinite dynamic range, making it very promising for both real-space imaging and spectroscopy. We demonstrate a significant enhancement of both image contrast and resolution, as compared to MCPs. Since aging of the Medipix 2 detector is negligible for the electron energies used in LEEM/PEEM, we expect Medipix to become the detector of choice for a new generation of systems.     

Application of channel electron multipliers in an electron detector for low‐voltage scanning electron microscopy

An electron detector containing channel electron multipliers was built and tested in the range of low‐voltage scanning electron microscopy as a detector of topographic contrast. The detector can detect backscattered electrons or the sum of backscattered electrons and secondary electrons, with different amount of secondary electrons. As a backscattered electron detector it collects backscattered electrons emitted in a specific range of take‐off angles and in a large range of azimuth angles enabling to obtain large solid collection angle and high collection efficiency. Two arrangements with different channel electron multipliers were studied theoretically with the use of the Monte Carlo method and one of them was built and tested experimentally. To shorten breaks in operation, a vacuum box preventing channel electron multipliers from an exposure to air during specimen exchanges was built and placed in the microscope chamber. The box is opened during microscope observations and is moved to the side of the scanning electron microscope chamber and closed during air admission and evacuation cycles enabling storing channel electron multipliers under vacuum for the whole time. Experimental tests of the detector included assessment of the type of detected electrons (secondary or backscattered), checking the tilt contrast, imaging the spatial collection efficiency, measuring the noise coefficient and recording images of different specimens.     

Five-element Johann-type x-ray emission spectrometer with a single-photon-counting pixel detector

A Johann-type spectrometer with five spherically bent crystals and a pixel detector was constructed for a range of hard x-ray photon-in photon-out synchrotron techniques, covering a Bragg-angle range of 60°-88°. The spectrometer provides a sub emission line width energy resolution from sub-eV to a few eV and precise energy calibration, better than 1.5 eV for the full range of Bragg angles. The use of a pixel detector allows fast and easy optimization of the signal-to-background ratio. A concentration detection limit below 0.4 wt% was reached at the Cu Kα(1) line. The spectrometer is designed as a modular mobile device for easy integration in a multi-purpose hard x-ray synchrotron beamline, such as the SuperXAS beamline at the Swiss Light Source.     

平板探测器坏像素校正方法研究

讨论X射线系统中平板探测器的坏像素产生原因并归纳分类。研究坏像素的探测、校正矩阵的生成和对坏像素的校正方法。通过仿真模型对所提出的校正算法进行了验证,通过比较重建图像的信噪比对该算法的效果进行了评估。研究结果表明,平板探测器的制造缺陷等固有噪声源将在重建图像中被增强,并表现为大量的条纹和环形伪影;通过校正,重建图像中的上述伪影明显减少,图像质量得到改善,且系统的低对比度探测能力也得到相应提高。     

Vermiculite lamellae as substrates for transmission electron microscopy

A technique for preparing human skin for high-resolution scanning electron microscopy using phosphate-buffered crude bacterial α-amylase is described. Effects of the buffer solution alone are studied as well as the proteolytic activity of the enzyme solution used. The biochemical implications of these observations are discussed with regard to the in situ structure of the tissue.     

Evaluation of high-resolution electron microscopy as a method for studying Y-Ba-Cu-O superconductors

High-resolution transmission electron microscopes operating at 300 and 400 kV were used to investigate the crystallography and microstructure of the perovskitelike YBa₂Cu₃O_7−x. In this paper, we evaluate the performance attainable with these microscopes both empirically and by computer modelling. Based upon the assumption that oxygen may be a key to superconductivity properties, we have also investigated the visibility of the oxygen sites as well as the heavier yttrium and barium ion positions and the lighter Cu atom positions. We propose a scheme for observing different twin orientations in these structures and hence the oxygen atom positions seen in projection for the [100] and [010]. Our observations of both thick and thin regions of Y-Ba-Cu-O materials are reported as well as the problems of adjusting microscope parameters and specimen alignment to obtain interpretable images. We also give a preliminary report on the effects of heat treatment as seen in high-resolution micrographs to assess disorder of the heavy atoms and oxygen vacancies.     

Application of an array processor to image processing in electron microscopy

It is now possible to obtain a number of so-called array processors to attach to existing computer systems, to increase the computing power and speed available. In this paper, the application of one such array processor to image processing in electron microscopy is considered, and some of the practical experience thus gained is reported.     

X-ray microscopy of plant cells by using LiF crystal as a detector

A lithium fluoride (LiF) crystal has been utilized as a new soft X-ray detector to image different biological samples at a high spatial resolution. This new type of image detector for X-ray microscopy has many interesting properties: high resolution (nanometer scale), permanent storage of images, the ability to clear the image and reuse the LiF crystal, and high contrast with greater dynamic range. Cells of the unicellular green algae Chlamydomonas dysosmos and Chlorella sorokiniana, and pollen grains of Olea europea have been used as biological materials for imaging. The biological samples were imaged on LiF crystals by using the soft X-ray contact microscopy and contact micro-radiography techniques. The laser plasma soft X-ray source was generated using a Nd:YAG/Glass laser focused on a solid target. The X-ray energy range for image acquisition was in the water-window spectral range for single shot contact microscopy of very thin biological samples (single cells) and around 1 keV for multishots microradiography. The main aim of this article is to highlight the possibility of using a LiF crystal as a detector for the biological imaging using soft X-ray radiation and to demonstrate its ability to visualize the microstructure within living cells.     

Thin polymer films as non-charging surfaces for scanning electron microscopy

Films of formvar, 1.2–20.0 nm in thickness, collodion and a 60/40 styrene-vinylpyridine copolymer (precipitated from solution) have been found to provide a noncharging layer on the surface of several types of specimens, including loose, or fibrous specimens. No electron build up was observed in most of the specimens when examined with a scanning beam of up to 30 kv for unlimited periods of time.     

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) embedding and subsequent de-embedding as a method for the correlation of light microscopy,scanning electron microscopy,and transmission electron microscopy

The polyethylene glycol (PEG) embedding and subsequent deembedding method was applied to the observation of general tissues in scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Resulting SEM images were of high quality. It was demonstrated that intermicroscopic correlation of images between light microscopy (LM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is easily and reliably done by means of the PEG method. In particular, the exact correlation of immuno-LM with SEM is shown to be of potential value.     

Quality improvement of environmental secondary electron detector signal using helium gas in variable pressure scanning electron microscopy

The quality of the image signal obtained from the environmental secondary electron detector (ESED) employed in a variable pressure (VP) SEM can be dramatically improved by using helium gas. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) increases gradually in the range of the pressures that can be used in our modified SEM. This method is especially useful in low-voltage VP SEM as well as in a variety of SEM operating conditions, because helium gas can more or less maintain the amount of unscattered primary electrons. In order to measure the SNR precisely, a digital scan generator system for obtaining two images with identical views is employed as a precondition.     

A novel chemical detector using colorimetric sensor array and pattern recognition methods for the concentration analysis of NH3

With a colorimetric sensor array comprising chemoresponsive dyes, a simple, rapid, and cost-effective integrated system for differentiating low-concentration gases was described. The system could be used to identify gases by detecting the color change information of the chemoresponsive dyes based on porphyrins before and after reaction with the target gas; the colorimetric sensor array images were collected by a charge coupled device and processed with image analysis to get the color changes of the dyes in the array. Temperature, humidity, and flux of the chamber could be detected and displayed on the personal computer screen. A low-concentration [30-210 ppb (parts per 10(9))] NH(3) was detected by the system. This prototype successfully differentiated four concentration levels of NH(3) in less than 1 min. Pattern recognition methods, such as the backpropagation neural network and the radial basis function neural network, validated the effect of the developed sensor system both with 100% classification with feature vectors at single time point as inputs.