Electron microstructure and mechanical properties of silicon and aluminium ductile irons

Samples of unalloyed silicon and aluminium spheroidal graphite cast iron have been studied in the austempered condition. Austempering times of up 3 h at 400°C for Al SG and 1 h at 350°C for Si SG gives a typical ADI microstructure consising of carbide-free banitic ferrite and stable, high carbon enriched, retained austenite. This has an attractive combination of elongation and strength. For longer austempering times transition carbides are precipitated in the bainitic ferrite, η-carbide in the upper bainitic range, i.e.400°C for Al SG and 350°C for Si SG, and ϵ-carbide in the lower bainite range. Increasing amounts of transition carbide reduce the ductility and produce a mixed model of fracture. For longer austempring times _X-carbide is precipitated at the ferrite/austenite boundaries leading to a more brittle fracture mode.     

Ductility Loss in Ductile Cast Iron with Internal Hydrogen

Hydrogen-induced ductility loss in ductile cast iron (DCI) was studied by conducting a series of tensile tests with three different crosshead speeds. By utilizing the thermal desorption spectroscopy and the hydrogen microprint technique, it was found that most of the solute hydrogen was diffusive and mainly segregated at the graphite, graphite/matrix interface zone, and the cementite of pearlite in the matrix. The fracture process of the non-charged specimen was dominated by the ductile dimple fracture, whereas that of the hydrogen-charged specimen became less ductile because of the accompanying interconnecting cracks between the adjacent graphite nodules. Inside the hydrogen-charged specimen, the interspaces generated by the interfacial debonding between graphite and matrix are filled with hydrogen gas in the early stage of the fracture process. In the subsequent fracture process, such a local hydrogen gas atmosphere coupled with a stress-induced diffusion attracts hydrogen to the crack tip, which results in a time-dependent ductility loss.     

The effect of triaxial stress field on intermediate temperature embrittlement of ferritic spheroidal graphite cast irons

The effect of varying triaxial stress field, by elongating the spheroidal graphite, on intermediate temperature embrittlement of ferritic spheroidal graphite cast irons has been investigated. The spheroidal graphite cast irons which have a maximum ductility at 40 pct reduction can eliminate the intermediate temperature embrittlement and its dependence on triaxiality. The flow stress of ferritic spheroidal graphite cast irons can be expressed by the following equation as the function of shape ratio (β) and the ratio of half mean free path to equatorial radius (α) at 673 K:     

Effect of hydrostatic pressure on deformation,damage evolution,and fracture of iron with various initial porosities

This study evaluated the effects of superimposed hydrostatic pressure (138 to 1104 MPa) on densification and plastic flow behavior of porous iron (0.3 to 11.1 % porosity). Pressurization alone caused densification of the porous iron with the effect being most pronounced when the porosity was greater than 3.7% and the pressure above 276 MPa. For the porosities studied, densification as a result of pressurization increased with hydrostatic pressure and initial porosity. The 0.3% porosity iron was the only one whose density did not increase with pressurization or deformation under pressure. The effect of hydrostatic pressure on the flow stress of porous iron was small when densification resulting from pressurization was not a factor. The ductility was found to increase linearly with pressure and the effect of pressure on fracture strain increased with the initial porosity of the iron. Evaluation of the effect of hydrostatic pressure on development of porosity and growth during tensile deformation was limited to hydrostatic pressures of 138 and 276 MPa and iron compacts with initial porosities of 0.3, 1.5, and 3.7% because of the pressurization effects. It appeared that the porosity at fracture was similar in these compacts at both pressures but it was much larger than that observed at 0.1 MPa. The greater ductility of the iron compacts tested under hydrostatic pressure results from a decrease in the growth of pores with deformation and from a greater damage tolerance prior to fracture. As observed for porosity, the average maximum pore diameters at fracture for the compacts tested under pressure were similar but larger than those observed at 0.1 MPa. It appears that a general model of ductile fracture for porous materials cannot be based solely on a critical degree of dilation or on maximum pore extension as a fracture criterion.     

Study on the relationship between intermediate-temperature embrittlement and triaxial stress induced by the ellipsoidal graphite in hot-rolled ferritic spheroidal graphite cast iron

The intermediate-temperature embrittlement of a hot-rolled ferritic spheroidal graphite cast iron was studied with the consideration that triaxial stress is induced by the ellipsoidal graphite particles of three unequal axial radii. The graphite shape was changed by various rolling reductions, and the tensile tests were performed at 673 K. The results show that the elongation and flow stress are independent of rolling reduction, and intergranular fracture occurs in all specimens. In the plasticity analysis, the triaxiality ratio (σ _m σ_eq) at a point in the ferrite matrix center can be expressed in terms of graphite shape ratio (b _d ) and graphite interparticle spacing (2a _d ) as σ _m /σ_eq = 1/3 +a _d /(2b _d ) where σ _m is the hydrostatic tensile stress and σ_eq is the equivalent stress. Accordingly, the average triaxiality ratio in the matrix center region is independent of rolling reduction and greater than one, a result that is consistent with the fact that the elongation is about constant, and all specimens undergo intergranular fracture. Moreover, the rolling reduction independent flow-stress behavior can be rationalized by the analytical result that the average σ _m /σ_eq is unchanged with rolling reduction, where σ _z is the internal stress along the tensile direction.     

Thermal fracture endurance of cast irons with application study of pig iron ingot molds

Pig iron ingot molds manufactured with flake, compacted graphite cast iron, and spheroidal graphite cast iron were installed on a pig iron casting machine and subjected to thermal cycling for studying thermal fracture endurance of the three cast irons. The effects of graphite morphology on the fracture mechanism were analyzed by examining the fracture patterns, microstructures, and microcracks in the failed molds. The determining factors of thermal fracture endurance were elucidated with thermal fracture resistance indices. Compacted graphite cast iron exhibited better thermal fracture endurance than flake and spheroidal graphite cast irons because of its higher strength-to-thermal stress ratio.     

The influence of hydrostatic pressure on fracture of single-crystal and polycrystalline NiAl

Effects of pressure on the tensile ductility of single-crystal and polycrystalline cast and Powder Metallurgy (PM) NiAl are examined. Simple pressurization does not measurably influence the ductility of any of the materials, despite the pressure-induced generation of mobile dislocations in the polycrystalline cast/extruded NiAl. Tension testing with a superimposed pressure did increase the ductility of the materials tested, albeit to different levels. The fracture strain of the single-crystal NiAl did not increase appreciably when tested under pressure, while significant pressure-induced ductility increases were obtained in the PM and cast materials, with 11 pct strain being attained for the cast material tested at 500 MPa. The fracture mode of the polycrystalline samples changed from primarily transgranular (TG) at 0.1 MPa to predominantly intergranular (IG) at 500 MPa. The increases in ductility and changes in fracture appearance are discussed in light of the probable effects of pressure on fracture nucleation and propagation, while the results are additionally compared to existing models. Formerly Graduate Student, Case Western Reserve University.     

Failure behavior of heat-affected zones within HSLA-100 and HY-100 steel weldments

The deformation and fracture behavior of simulated heat-affected zones (HAZ) within HSLA-100 and HY-100 steel weldments has been studied as a function of stress state using notched and unnotched axisymmetric tensile specimens. For the case of the HSLA-100 steel, the results for fine-grained, as well as coarse-grain HAZ (CGHAZ) material, show that, despite large differences in the deformation behavior when compared to base plate or weld metal, the failure strains are only weakly dependent on the thermal history or microstructure. Ductile microvoid fracture dominates the failure of the HSLA-100 steel with small losses of ductility occurring in the HAZ conditions only at high stress triaxialities. In contrast, the HY-100 steel is susceptible to a large loss of ductility over all of the stress states when subjected to a severe, single-pass simulation of a CGHAZ. The ductility loss is greatest at the high stress triaxiality ratio in which case failure initiation occurs by a combination of localized cleavage and ductile microvoid fracture.     

石墨形态和铬含量对铸铁干摩擦学性能的影响

使用ＭＭ—２００磨损试验机研究了石墨形态和铬含量对铸铁与石棉基摩擦材料配副时的干摩擦学性能。结果表明,蠕墨铸铁的磨损率最低;摩擦系数由高到低依次为：片墨铸铁、蠕墨铸铁、球墨铸铁。蠕墨铸铁中,随着铬含量的增加,耐磨性能明显提高,摩擦系数略有降低。在高速、高载荷条件下,铬含量的质量分数达到１．５％时,耐磨性可达普通蠕墨铸铁的４倍以上;随着载荷的增加,蠕墨铸铁的摩擦系数降低,磨损率提高。在高速条件下,摩擦系数降低的幅度比在低速条件下小。铬改善蠕墨铸铁干摩擦学性能的效果在高速使用条件下更为突出。     

高纯钼板断口形貌和组织分析

对通过不同锻造和轧制工艺制备的高纯钼板的拉伸力学性能、显微组织和断口形貌进行了分析。确定了不同工艺条件下高纯钼板的组织变化情况和抗拉强度。结果表明：纤维状组织的高纯钼板具有良好的室温韧性，其断裂表现为准解理断裂；若经过回复和再结晶，纤维组织转化成等轴晶粒组织，则材料呈现脆性，其断裂表现为穿晶解理断裂和沿晶脆性断裂的混合型断裂。     

Effect of graphite morphology on modulus of elasticity of low carbon equivalent ductile iron

The modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus) of cast irons is known to be a function of graphite volume fraction in the microstructure. Low carbon equivalent ductile iron is a low carbon cast iron in which, carbon is present as graphite in nodular form. It is observed that the modulus of elasticity of these irons is higher than that of conventional ductile iron. In the present investigation, an interrelationship of modulus of elasticity with graphite nodule counts, nodule size and graphite volume has been investigated. A significant relationship is observed between the modulus of elasticity and the above mentioned morphological characteristics of graphite.     

含钒蠕墨铸铁干摩擦学性能

研究了含钒蠕墨铸铁与钢盘对磨时的干摩擦学性能。结果表明，钒的加入降低了蠕墨铣的的磨损量，提高了接触压力和摩擦速度变化时磨损量的稳定性。含钒０．１％和０．３％时，提高了摩擦系数和高接触压力，高摩擦速度下降摩擦系数稳定性。     

X80钢孔洞体胞模型及孔洞演化数值分析

 采用扫描电镜和图像分析对高强韧X80管线钢的拉伸断口特征进行观察以及统计分析,根据断口特征参数设计孔洞体胞模型,并应用有限元数值模拟计算研究孔洞扩张比的演化规律。结果表明,在低应力三轴度的条件下,随着等效应变的增加,夹杂物导致的孔洞体积扩张比也不断缓慢增加,等效应变与孔洞体积扩张比的自然对数成正比,线性关系吻合良好,在后期高应力作用下应考虑M-A岛二次形核形成的孔洞片导致韧性断裂。在任何加载的条件下,对于高的应力三轴度,有限元数值模拟计算孔洞扩张比的演化规律与传统的[R-][T]模型有较大的差异,夹杂物导致的孔洞体积扩张比迅速增加,最终由孔洞间韧带颈缩引起韧性断裂。     

Deformation structure and the tensile fracture characteristics of a cold worked 1080 pearlitic steel

The tensile mechanical properties, deformation structure, and tensile fracture characteristics of a 1080 perlitic steel were examined at various reduction ratios of cold work. The final tensile fracture ductility exhibited an unusual behavior in that this parameter first decreased and then increased with increasing reduction ratio. At a reduction ratio of 1.92, the cold worked material exhibited greater tensile ductility than the as-heat treated material even though the yield strength was greater by more than 400 pct. Microscopic regions of structural damage in the form of shear bands were observed at all reduction ratios, but appeared to become less detrimental to the subsequent tensile ductility as the reduction ratio increased. The fracture mode observed on the broken tensile specimens changed from predominantly cleavage to completely fibrous as the amount of cold reduction was increased. These observations are thought to result from a complex interaction between the interfacial strength of the shear bands, interlamellar spacing and texture effects and the stress state during deformation.     

3D Quantitative Analysis of Graphite Morphology in Ductile Cast Iron by X-ray Microtomography

In this article, X-ray microtomography and color metallographic techniques have been used to perform three-dimensional quantitative characterization of graphite nodule morphology in a step-shaped ductile cast iron casting. Statistical analyses of the graphite nodule count, diameter, sphericity, and spatial distribution have been processed for three samples in detail. The results reveal that graphite nodules in ductile cast iron can be categorized into two categories. The first types are nodules located in eutectic cells (NIECs), and the other one refers to nodules located between the eutectic cells (NBECs). The NIECs possess a larger average diameter but smaller sphericity compared with the NBECs, and the sphericity decreases along with the increasing of diameter. The increasing casting thickness results in an increasing count and percentage of NBECs. In addition, most nodules are NIECs in thin walls instead of NBECs in thick walls. Nonuniform spatial distributions of graphite nodules caused by the existence of NBECs have been found to become more obvious along with the increase of cast thickness.     

Effect of residual magnesium content on thermal fatigue cracking behavior of high-silicon spheroidal graphite cast iron

This study investigates the thermal fatigue cracking behavior of high-silicon spheroidal graphite (SG) cast iron. Irons with different residual magnesium contents ranging from 0.038 to 0.066 wt pct are obtained by controlling the amount of spheroidizer. The repeated heating/cooling test is performed under cyclic heating in various temperatures ranging from 650 °C to 800 °C. Experimental results indicate that the thermal fatigue cracking resistance of high-silicon SG cast iron decreases with increasing residual magnesium content. The shortest period for crack initiation and the largest crack propagation rate of the specimens containing 0.054 and 0.060 wt pct residual magnesium contents are associated with heating temperatures of 700 °C and 750 °C. Heating temperatures outside this range can enhance the resistance to thermal fatigue crack initiation and propagation. When thermal fatigue cracking occurs, the cracks always initiate at the surface of the specimen. The major path of crack propagation is generally along the eutectic cell-wall region among the ferrite grain boundaries, which is the location of MgO inclusions agglomerating together. On the other hand, dynamic recrystallization of ferrite grains occurs when the thermal cycle exceeds a certain number after testing at 800 °C. Besides, dynamic recrystallization of the ferrite matrix suppresses the initiation and propagation of thermal fatigue cracking.     

Microstructural effects on the tensile and fracture behavior of aluminum casting alloys A356/357

The tensile properties and fracture behavior of cast aluminum alloys A356 and A357 strongly depend on secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS), Mg content, and, in particular, the size and shape of eutectic silicon particles and Fe-rich intermetallics. In the unmodified alloys, increasing the cooling rate during solidification refines both the dendrites and eutectic particles and increases ductility. Strontium modification reduces the size and aspect ratio of the eutectic silicon particles, leading to a fairly constant particle size and aspect ratio over the range of SDAS studied. In comparison with the unmodified alloys, the Sr-modified alloys show higher ductility, particularly the A356 alloy, but slightly lower yield strength. In the microstructures with large SDAS (>50 μm), the ductility of the Sr-modified alloys does not continuously decrease with SDAS as it does in the unmodified alloy. Increasing Mg content increases both the matrix strength and eutectic particle size. This decreases ductility in both the Sr-modified and unmodified alloys. The A356/357 alloys with large and elongated particles show higher strain hardening and, thus, have a higher damage accumulation rate by particle cracking. Compared to A356, the increased volume fraction and size of the Fe-rich intermetallics (π phase) in the A357 alloy are responsible for the lower ductility, especially in the Sr-modified alloy. In alloys with large SDAS (>50 μm), final fracture occurs along the cell boundaries, and the fracture mode is transgranular. In the small SDAS (<30 μm) alloys, final fracture tends to concentrate along grain boundaries. The transition from transgranular to intergranular fracture mode is accompanied by an increase in the ductility of the alloys.     

Effect of Stress Triaxiality on the Flow and Fracture of Mg Alloy AZ31

The microscopic damage mechanisms operating in a hot-rolled magnesium alloy AZ31B are investigated under both uniaxial and controlled triaxial loadings. Their connection to macroscopic fracture strains and fracture mode (normal vs shear) is elucidated using postmortem fractography, interrupted tests, and microscopic analysis. The fracture locus (strain-to-failure vs stress triaxiality) exhibits a maximum at moderate triaxiality, and the strain-to-failure is found to be greater in notched specimens than in initially smooth ones. A transition from twinning-induced fracture under uniaxial loading to microvoid coalescence fracture under triaxial loading is evidenced. It is argued that this transition accounts in part for the observed greater ductility in notched bars. The evolution of plastic anisotropy with stress triaxiality is also investigated. It is inferred that anisotropic plasticity at a macroscopic scale suffices to account for the observed transition in the fracture mode from flat (triaxial loading) to shear-like (uniaxial loading). Damage is found to initiate at second-phase particles and deformation twins. Fracture surfaces of broken specimens exhibit granular morphology, coarse splits, twin-sized crack traces, as well as shallow and deep dimples, in proportions that depend on the overall stress triaxiality and fracture mode. An important finding is that AZ31B has a greater tolerance to ductile damage accumulation than has been believed thus far, based on the fracture behavior in uniaxial specimens. Another finding, common to both tension and compression, is the increase in volumetric strain, the microscopic origins of which remain to be elucidated.     

Hydrogen induced ductility losses in austenitic stainless steel welds

The effect of hydrogen on the tensile behavior of austenitic stainless steel welds was studied in two AISI 300 series alloys and two nitrogen strengthened alloys. The microstructure of these welds typically contained several percent ferrite in an austenite matrix. Hydrogen was found to reduce the ductility of all welds; however, the severity of ductility loss increased with increasing tendency to deform via a planar slip mode. In materials exhibiting large degrees of slip planarity, 304L and 308L, hydrogen changed the fracture mode from dimple rupture to a mixed mode of ductile and brittle fracture associated with the austenite-ferrite interface. The two alloys, 22-13-5 and 309S, which tend to deform by cross slip mechanisms, showed smaller losses in ductility even though hydrogen assisted the ductile rupture process by aiding void growth and coalescence, without changing the fracture mode. Varying the amount of ferrite from approximately one to 10 pct had no significant effect on performance in hydrogen.     

Effect of grain boundary chemistry on the intergranular fracture of iron at cathodic potentials

The percent intergranular fracture and tensile ductility of iron tested at cathodic potentials in IN H₂SO₄ was found to depend primarily on the grain boundary sulfur concentration. Zone refined and vacuum melted iron with different bulk sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen but similar carbon concentrations were evaluated. The grain boundary chemistry was measured by Auger Electron Spectroscopy and the fracture mode and ductility by uniaxial straining electrode tests at potentials of -0.60 to -2.0 V (SCE) in IN H₂SO₄. The tensile ductility, as measured by the total strain and reduction of area, of both irons decreased with increasing cathodic potentials. The fracture mode and ductility at a potential of - 0.6 V (SCE) was related to the grain boundary sulfur concentration with increasing sulfur resulting in an increasing percent intergranular fracture and a decreasing ductility. The fracture mode and ductility was not related to the grain boundary oxygen, nitrogen or carbon concentrations but large bulk nitrogen concentrations did promote cleavage and quasicleavage fracture.