Experimental study on heat transfer and pressure drop in mercury flow system for spallation neutron source

In the design of MW-class spallation target system, using mercury to produce practical neutron applications, keeping the highest level of safety is vitally important. To establish the safety of spallation target system, it is essential to understand the thermal hydraulic properties of mercury. Through thermal hydraulic experiments using a mercury experimental loop, which flows at the rate of 1.2 m³/hr maximum, the following facts were experimentally confirmed. The wall friction factor was relatively larger than the Blasius correlation due to the effects of wall roughness. The heat transfer coefficients agreed well with the Subbotin correlation. Furthermore, for validation of the design analysis code, thermal hydraulic analyses were conducted by using the STAR-CD code under the same conditions as the experiments. Analytical results showed good agreement with the experimental results, using optimized turbulent Prandtl number and mesh size.     

Experimental study on convective heat transfer of water flow in a heated tube under natural circulation

This paper reports on an experimental study on transitional heat transfer of water flow in a heated vertical tube under natural circulation conditions. In the experiments the local and average heat transfer coefficients were obtained. The experimental data were compared with the predictions by a forced flow correlation available in the literature. The comparisons show that the Nusselt number value in the fully developed region is about 30% lower than the predictions by the forced flow correlation due to flow laminarization in the layer induced by co-current bulk natural circulation and free convection. By using the Rayleigh number Ra to represent the influence of free convection on heat transfer, the empirical correlations for the calculation of local and average heat transfer behavior in the tube at natural circulation have been developed. The empirical correlations are in good agreement with the experimental data. Based on the experimental results, the effect of the thermal entry-length behavior on heat transfer design in the tube under natural circulation was evaluated.     

Type of flow, pressure drop, and critical heat flux of a two-phase sodium flow

Little is known about the two-phase pressure loss, the flow pattern, and the critical heat flux conditions for boiling sodium under forced convection. The specific thermohydraulic properties of sodium prohibit extrapolation to sodium of experimental data obtained for other liquids. Therefore, some new test series were carried out in a sodium loop with an induction heated test section of 9 mm inner diameter and 200 mm heated length. The two-phase pressure loss and the film thickness were measured up to the critical cooling conditions. The experimental results are compared with values predicted by known models on annular flow and annular mist flow, respectively. Satisfactory predictions of the flow pattern and the critical heat flux conditions could only be obtained using the measured two-phase pressure losses.     

套管管束式换热器的阻力特性和流量分配研究

对套管管束式换热器一次侧并联流道的阻力特性进行了研究.研究的目的是确定套管管束式换热器一次侧并联流道的阻力特性,找出流量分配的规律,通过对流量分配进行优化,解决套管管束式换热器的优化设计问题.研究方法是按照相似准则制造试验本体,建造试验台架并进行试验.试验验证了计算模型的正确性,得到了减小管间距可提高总传热系数的结果.     

CFD analysis of flow and heat transfer of turbulent pulsating flow in a tube in rolling motion

The investigation of flow and heat transfer of turbulent pulsating flow is of vital importance to the nuclear reactor thermal hydraulic analysis in ocean environment. In this paper, the flow and heat transfer of turbulent pulsating flow is analyzed. The calculation results are firstly verified with experimental data. The agreement between them is satisfactory. The effect of spanwise and wall-normal additional forces is significant in small Reynolds number, and decreases with Reynolds number increasing. The rolling axis and rolling radius contribute slight to the flow and heat transfer. The effect of velocity oscillation period on the heat transfer is limited than that of Reynolds number and oscillating velocity Reynolds number. The traditional empirical correlations could not predict the flow and heat transfer of turbulent pulsating flow in rolling motion.     

Turbulent heat transfer to longitudinal flow through a triangular array of circular rods

Temperature distribution and heat transfer to longitudinal turbulent, fully developed flow through triangular arrays of smooth circular rods are analysed for liquids with Prandtl number 1 and 1. Nusselt number is plotted versus pitch and turbulence for constant heat flow and for constant temperature on the rod surface, and the optimum pitch is determined. The influence of Prandtl number on Nusselt number is analysed.     

Supercritical-water heat transfer in a vertical bare tube

This paper presents selected results on heat transfer to supercritical water flowing upward in a 4-m-long vertical bare tube. Supercritical-water heat-transfer data were obtained at pressures of about 24 MPa, mass fluxes of 200-1500 kg/m² s, heat fluxes up to 884 kW/m² and inlet temperatures from 320 to 350 °C for several combinations of wall and bulk-fluid temperatures that were below, at or above the pseudocritical temperature.In general, the experiments confirmed that there are three heat-transfer regimes for forced-convective heat transfer to water flowing inside tubes at supercritical pressures: (1) normal heat-transfer regime characterized in general with heat transfer coefficients (HTCs) similar to those of subcritical convective heat transfer far from critical or pseudocritical regions, which are calculated according to the Dittus-Boelter type correlations; (2) deteriorated heat-transfer regime with lower values of the HTC and hence higher values of wall temperature within some part of a test section compared to those of the normal heat-transfer regime; and (3) improved heat-transfer regime with higher values of HTC and hence lower values of wall temperature within some part of a test section compared to those of the normal heat-transfer regime.This new heat-transfer dataset is applicable as a reference dataset for future comparison with supercritical-water bundle data and for a verification of scaling parameters between water and modeling fluids.Also, these HTC data were compared to those calculated with the original Dittus-Boelter and Bishop et al. correlations. The comparison showed that the Bishop et al. correlation, which uses the cross-section average Prandtl number, represents HTC profiles more correctly along the heated length of the tube than the Dittus-Boelter correlation. In general, the Bishop et al. correlation shows a fair agreement with the experimental HTCs outside the pseudocritical region, however, overpredicts by about 25% the experimental HTCs within the pseudocritical region. The Dittus-Boelter correlation can also predict the experimental HTCs outside the pseudocritical region, but deviates significantly from the experimental data within the pseudocritical region. It should be noted that both these correlations cannot be used for a prediction of HTCs within the deteriorated heat-transfer regime.     

规则球床堆熔盐流动压降与对流换热CFD模拟

球床堆复杂的几何结构导致直接建模进行热工水力模拟非常困难,一般使用多孔介质模型简化处理,但多孔介质已有的压降和对流换热公式在熔盐冷却球床中的有效性仍待验证。本文基于固态燃料熔盐堆建立了6 cm直径小球的规则球床模型,给定球床进口熔盐流量和球壳发热功率,模拟了球床内的稳态流动与换热,计算了对应的压降和对流换热系数,并分别得到了球床压降、对流换热Nu随球床内流动Re变化的曲线。对比发现:模拟压降结果与已有公式差异较大,而模拟对流换热Nu结果与已有公式的差异相对较小。结合模拟结果和已有的公式,拟合得到了修正的压降和对流换热Nu公式。将修正公式应用于3 cm直径规则球床中,结果表明多孔介质修正模型与直接模拟结果一致。     

Experimental and numerical studies of pressure drop in PbLi flows in a circular duct under non-uniform transverse magnetic field

Experiments and three-dimensional (3D) numerical simulations are performed to investigate the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) characteristics of liquid metal (LM) flows of molten lead-lithium (PbLi) eutectic alloy in an electrically conducting circular duct subjected to a transverse non-uniform (fringing) magnetic field. An indirect measurement approach for differential pressure in high temperature LM PbLi is first developed, and then detailed data on pressure drop in this PbLi MHD flow are measured. The obtained experimental results for the pressure distribution are in good agreement with numerical simulations. Using the numerical simulation results, the 3D effects caused by fringing magnetic field on the LM flow are illustrated via distributions for the axial pressure gradients and transverse pressure differences. It has been verified that a simple approach for estimation of pressure drop in LM MHD flow in a fringing magnetic field proposed by Miyazaki et al. [22] i.e., a simple integral of pressure gradient along the fringing field zone using a quasi-fully-developed flow assumption, is also applicable to the conditions of the present experiment providing the magnetic interaction parameter is large enough. Furthermore, for two different sections of the LM flow at the entry to and at the exit from the magnet, it is found that the pressure distributions in the duct cross sections in these two regions are different.     

Liquid metal heat transfer in heat exchangers under low flow rate conditions

The present paper describes the liquid metal heat transfer in heat exchangers under low flow rate conditions. Measured data from some experiments indicate that heat transfer coefficients of liquid metals at very low Péclet number are much lower than what are predicted by the well-known empirical relations. The cause of this phenomenon was not fully understood for many years. In the present study, one countercurrent-type heat exchanger is analyzed using three, separated countercurrent heat exchanger models: one is a heat exchanger model in the tube bank region, while the upper and lower plena are modeled as two heat exchangers with a single heat transfer tube. In all three heat exchangers, the same empirical correlation is used in the heat transfer calculation on the tube and the shell sides. The Nusselt number, as a function of the Péclet number, calculated from measured temperature and flow rate data in a 50 MW experimental facility was correctly reproduced by the calculation result, when the calculated result is processed in the same way as the experiment. Finally, it is clarified that the deviation is a superficial phenomenon which is caused by the heat transfer in the plena of the heat exchanger.     

Influence of heat input waveform on transient critical heat flux of subcooled water flow boiling in a short vertical tube

The transient critical heat fluxes (CHFs) of the subcooled water flow boiling for ramp-wise heat input [Q = αt, α = 6.21 × 10⁸ to 1.63 × 10¹² W/m³ s, (q ≅ 1.08 × 10⁷ to 6.00 × 10⁷ W/m²)] and stepwise one [Q = Q_s, Q_s = 0 W/m³ at t = 0 s and Q_s = 2.95 × 10¹⁰ to 7.67 × 10¹⁰ W/m³ at t > 0 s, (q = 0 W/m² at t = 0 s and q ≅ 1.61 × 10⁷ to 3.87 × 10⁷ W/m² at t > 0 s)] with the flow velocities (u = 4.0-13.3 m/s), the inlet subcoolings (ΔT_sub,in = 86.8-153.3 K) and the inlet pressures (P_in = 742.2-1293.4 kPa) are systematically measured by an experimental water loop comprised of a pressurizer. The SUS304 tubes of inner diameters (d = 3, 6 and 9 mm), heated lengths (L = 33.15, 59.5 and 49.3 mm), L/d (=11.05, 9.92 and 5.48), and wall thickness (δ = 0.5, 0.5 and 0.3 mm) respectively with the rough finished inner surface (surface roughness, Ra = 3.18 μm) are used in this work. The experimental errors in the subcooling measure and the pressure one are ±1 K and ±1 kPa, while in the heat flux it is ±2%. The transient CHF data for the ramp-wise heat input and the stepwise one are compared with those for the exponentially increasing heat input (Q = Q₀ exp(t/τ), τ = 16.82 ms to 15.52 s) previously obtained and the dominant variables on transient CHF for heat input waveform difference are confirmed. The transient CHF data are compared with the values calculated by the steady state CHF correlations against inlet and outlet subcoolings, and the applicability of steady state CHF correlations is confirmed extending its possible validity for the reduced time, ω_p, down to 800 ms. The transient CHF data are compared with the values calculated by the transient CHF correlations against inlet and outlet subcoolings, and the influence of heat input waveform on transient CHF is clarified based on the experimental data for the ramp-wise heat input, the stepwise one and the exponentially increasing one. The dominant mechanisms of the subcooled flow boiling critical heat flux for the ramp-wise heat input, the stepwise one and the exponentially increasing one are discussed.     

Pressure drop and heat transfer in gas-cooled rod bundles

Extensive experimental and analytical investigations of fluid flow and heat transfer in gas-cooled rod bundles have been carried out. Different bundle geometries with partially or fully roughened rod surfaces were tested in a carbon dioxide loop. An advanced and comprehensive measuring control and instrumentation are important design features of this experiment. Comprehensive thermal hydraulic subchannel analysis computer codes have been developed in order to assist fuel element design calculation for gas-cooled reactors. The experiments, codes and their verification procedure are described and the results of comparisons between measured and calculated pressure and temperature distributions are given.     

Experimental investigation of heat transfer from a circular pipe to lead coolant with controlled oxygen content

The results of experimental investigations of heat transfer from a circular pipe to lead coolant with the oxygen content being controlled and monitored are presented. The heat-transfer investigations are conducted for Peclet numbers 800–3550, Prandtl numbers 0.0123–0.0211, and Reynolds numbers 40,000–190,000 with specific heat flux ~40 kW/m ² and thermodynamically active oxygen content in lead 10^-7 –10⁰ . The experimental dependences of the Nusselt numers on the Prandtl numbers with different oxygen content in the lead coolant are obtained.Translated from Atomnaya Énergiya, Vol. 97, No. 5, pp. 345–349, November, 2004.     

Numerical study on flow and heat transfer characteristics in the rod bundle channels under super critical pressure condition

In this study, the 3D flow and heat transfer characteristics in rod bundle channels of the super critical water-cooled reactor were numerically investigated using CFX codes. Different turbulent models were evaluated and the flow and heat transfer characteristics in different typical channels were obtained. The effect of pitch-to-diameter ratio (P/D) on the distributions of surface temperature and heat transfer coefficient (HTC) was analysed. For typical quadrilateral channel, it was found that HTC increases with P/D first and then decreases significantly when P/D is <1.4. There exists a “flat region” at the maximum value when P/D is 1.4. If P/D is larger than 1.4, heat transfer deterioration (HTD) occurs as main stream enthalpy is quite small. Furthermore, the HTD under low mass flow rate and the non-uniformity of circumferential temperature were also discussed.     

Critical heat fluxes of subcooled water flow boiling in a short vertical tube at high liquid Reynolds number

The steady state critical heat fluxes (CHFs) and the heat transfer of the subcooled water flow boiling for the flow velocities (u = 17.2-42.4 m/s), the inlet subcoolings (ΔT_sub,in = 80.9-147.6 K), the inlet pressures (P_in = 812.1-1181.5 kPa) and the exponentially increasing heat input (Q₀ exp(t/τ), τ = 8.5 s) are systematically measured by the experimental water loop comprised of a new multi-stage canned-type circulation pump with high pump head. The SUS304 test tube of inner diameter (d = 6 mm), heated length (L = 59.5 mm), L/d = 9.92 and wall thickness (δ = 0.5 mm) with surface roughness (Ra = 3.18 μm) is used in this work. The steady state CHFs of the subcooled water flow boiling for the flow velocities ranging from 17.2 to 42.4 m/s are clarified. The steady state CHFs are compared with the values calculated by our transient CHF correlations against outlet and inlet subcoolings based on the experimental data for the flow velocities ranging from 4.0 to 13.3 m/s. The influence of flow velocity at high liquid Reynolds number on the subcooled flow boiling CHF is investigated in detail and the widely and precisely predictable correlations of the transient CHF correlations against outlet and inlet subcoolings in a short vertical tube are derived based on the experimental data at high liquid Reynolds number. The transient CHF correlations can describe the subcooled flow boiling CHFs for the wide range of flow velocities at high liquid Reynolds number obtained in this work within ±15% difference.     

An investigation on heat transfer characteristics of different pressure steam-water in vertical upward tube

Within the range of pressure from 9 to 30 MPa, mass velocity from 600 to 1200 kg/(m² s), and heat flux at inner wall from 200 to 600 kW/m², experiments have been performed to investigate the heat transfer characteristics of steam-water two-phase flow in vertical upward tube. The outer diameter of the tube is 32 mm, and the wall thickness is 3 mm. Based on results, it was found that Dryout is the main mechanism of the heat transfer deterioration in the sub-critical pressure region. Near the critical pressure, when the heat transfer deterioration occurs, the steam quality of water is lower than that in the sub-critical pressure region, so that DNB is the main mechanism in this pressure region. At supercritical pressure, the heat transfer performance in circular channel is improved and enhanced. Heat transfer deterioration phenomenon is observed when the fluid bulk temperature approaches to the pseudo-critical value. Nusselt correlation of the forced-convection heat transfer in supercritical pressure region has been provided, which can be used to predict heat transfer coefficient of the vertical upward flow in tube.     

Investigation of forced convection heat transfer of supercritical pressure water in a vertically upward internally ribbed tube

In the present paper, the forced convection heat transfer characteristics of water in a vertically upward internally ribbed tube at supercritical pressures were investigated experimentally. The six-head internally ribbed tube is made of SA-213T12 steel with an outer diameter of 31.8 mm and a wall thickness of 6 mm and the mean inside diameter of the tube is measured to be 17.6 mm. The experimental parameters were as follows. The pressure at the inlet of the test section varied from 25.0 to 29.0 MPa, and the mass flux was from 800 to 1200 kg/(m² s), and the inside wall heat flux ranged from 260 to 660 kW/m². According to experimental data, the effects of heat flux and pressure on heat transfer of supercritical pressure water in the vertically upward internally ribbed tube were analyzed, and the characteristics and mechanisms of heat transfer enhancement, and also that of heat transfer deterioration, were also discussed in the so-called large specific heat region. The drastic changes in thermophysical properties near the pseudocritical points, especially the sudden rise in the specific heat of water at supercritical pressures, may result in the occurrence of the heat transfer enhancement, while the covering of the heat transfer surface by fluids lighter and hotter than the bulk fluid makes the heat transfer deteriorated eventually and explains how this lighter fluid layer forms. It was found that the heat transfer characteristics of water at supercritical pressures were greatly different from the single-phase convection heat transfer at subcritical pressures. There are three heat transfer modes of water at supercritical pressures: (1) normal heat transfer, (2) deteriorated heat transfer with low HTC but high wall temperatures in comparison to the normal heat transfer, and (3) enhanced heat transfer with high HTC and low wall temperatures in comparison to the normal heat transfer. It was also found that the heat transfer deterioration at supercritical pressures was similar to the DNB at subcritical pressures.     

Flow and pressure drop fluctuations in a vertical tube subject to low frequency oscillations

Heat transfer and other equipment mounted on off-shore platforms may be subjected to low frequency oscillations. The effect of these oscillations, typically in the frequency range of 0.1–1 Hz, on the flow rate and pressure drop in a vertical tube has been studied experimentally in the present work. A 1.75 m-long vertical tube of inner diameter 0.016 m was mounted on a plate and the whole plate was subjected to oscillations in the vertical plane using a mechanical simulator capable of providing low frequency oscillations in the range of 8–30 cycles/min at an amplitude of 0.125 m. The effect of the oscillations on the flow rate and the pressure drop has been measured systematically in the Reynolds number range 500–6500. The induced flow rate fluctuations were found to be dependent on the Reynolds number with stronger fluctuations at lower Reynolds numbers. The effective friction factor, based on the mean pressure drop and the mean flow rate, was also found to be higher than expected. Correlations have been developed to quantify this Reynolds number dependence.