The heat transfer coefficient between a particle and a bed (packed or fluidised) of much larger particles

The heat transfer coefficient has been measured for a heated phosphor-bronze sphere (diam. 2.0, 3.0 or 5.56 mm) added to a bed of larger particles, through which air at room temperature was passed. The bronze heat transfer sphere was attached to a very thin, flexible thermocouple and was heated in a flame to before being immersed in the bed. The cooling of the bronze sphere enabled the heat transfer coefficient, h, to be measured for a variety of U/U_mf, as well as diameters of both the particles in the bed and the heat transfer sphere. It was found that before the onset of fluidisation, h rose with U, but h reached a constant value for U?U_mf. These measurements indicate that in this situation (of a relatively small particle in a bed of larger particles) all the heat transfer is between the hot bronze sphere and the gas flowing over it. Consequently, a Nusselt number, based on the thermal conductivity of the gas, is easy to define and for U?U_mf (i.e. a packed bed), Nu is given by

     

振动流化床中大颗粒与水平管局部传热特性

在二维振动流化床中,以平均粒径1.83 mm的玻璃珠为物料,研究了大颗粒与水平管间局部传热规律;考察了气速、振动频率等因素对局部传热系数的影响,同时与小米和小玻璃珠实验结果进行对比。结果表明:大颗粒与小颗粒局部传热系数有很大差异;对于大颗粒,低速下局部传热系数随振动频率的增大先增加后减小,高速下局部传热系数随着振动频率的增加而降低;一定振动频率下,气速小时局部传热系数在60°左右达到最大,气速逐渐增加后,其最大值向90°转移。通过实验数据得到了计算大颗粒与水平管局部传热系数的关联式,计算值与实验值吻合较好,误差在±20%范围内。结果可为带浸没水平管的振动流化床设计和研究提供参考。     

Systematic study on heat transfer and surface hydrodynamics of a vertical heat tube in a fluidized bed of FCC particles

Bed‐to‐wall heat transfer properties of a vertical heat tube in a fluidized bed of fine fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) particles are measured systematically using a specially designed heat tube. Two important surface hydrodynamic parameters, i.e. the packet fraction (δ_pa) and mean packet residence time (τ_pa) based on the packet renewal theory, are determined by an optical fiber probe and a data processing method. The experimental results successfully reveal the axial and radial profiles of heat‐transfer coefficient, the effects of superficial gas velocity, and static bed height on heat‐transfer coefficient, most of which can be explained successfully by the measured τ_pa, an indicator of packet renewal frequency. τ_pa is found to play a more dominant role than δ_pa on bed‐to‐wall heat transfer. With a fitted correction factor, the modified Mickley and Fairbanks model is able to predict the heat‐transfer coefficients with enough accuracy based on the determined packet parameters. © 2014 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 61: 68–83, 2015     

Conversion of hydrogen chloride to chlorine by catalytic oxidation in a two-zone circulating fluidized bed reactor

A two-zone circulating fluidized bed reactor comprising an oxychlorination zone and a chlorination zone significantly improved the conversion of HCl to Cl₂. A supported catalyst for the process composed of 5% of copper, and promoters K in a molar ratio of K to Cu of one and 2.5% CeCl was highly active and stable. The optimal operation temperatures are 390-400 °C in the oxychlorination zone and 200-240 °C in the chlorination zone. A higher conversion of HCl can be obtained with a lower WHSV of HCl and a lower HCl/O₂ molar ratio, but the height of the reactor must be high enough.     

Modeling of grid region heat transfer in a shallow gas-solid fluidized bed

Heat transfer coefficients between the bed and an immersed horizontal tube in the grid-region of a shallow gas-solid fluidized bed were experimentally and theoretically studied. Experiments were carried out in two fluidized bed columns with inside diameters of 88 and 137 mm, respectively. The fluidized particles tested were sand, limestone and glass beads. Experimental parameters also included particle size, superficial gas velocity, tube diameter, tube location and distributor design. A mechanistic model considering the contributions of jet phase, emulsion phase and dead phase was derived for estimating the grid-region heat transfer coefficients. Most of the model predictions were found to be within 25% of the experimentally observed data.     

Combustion of single char particles in a turbulent fluidized bed

The combustion of single bituminous char particles (4-12 mm diameter) was studied in a turbulent fluidized bed operated at 1098 K using air as the fluidising medium. Results indicated that particles burn with constant density following a shrinking sphere model. Burning rates are much higher than those observed in a bubbling fluidized bed. The rate of transfer of oxygen to the particle surface is also higher than that observed in bubbling beds. A model is proposed to calculate the Sherwood numbers of the burning carbon particles. Experimental values of the Sherwood numbers agree well with those predicted from the model.     

Kinetics and mechanism of solid reactions in a micro fluidized bed reactor

A novel gas–solid Micro Fluidized Bed Reaction Analyzer (MFBRA) was developed to deduce reaction rates and kinetic parameters through measuring time‐dependent composition changes of evolved gases from the reactions. Application of the MFBRA to the decomposition of CaCO₃ powder resulted in an apparent activation energy of 142.73 kJ/mol and a pre‐exponential factor of 399,777 s^?1. This apparent activation energy was much lower than the thermogravimetry‐measured value of 184.31 kJ/mol, demonstrating a quicker reaction in the MFBRA. This was further verified by CuO reduction in CO, as accelerated by the fast diffusion and high heating rate in the MFBRA. Measurement of pyrolysis of coal and biomass in MFBRA found that the reaction process was completed in about 10 s, a time much shorter than the literature‐reported values in larger fluidized bed reactors. By monitoring the release of gas species from reactions at different temperatures, the MFBRA also allowed deeper insight into the mechanism of pyrolysis reactions. © 2010 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2010     

气固流化床外取热器内流动和换热特性分析

外取热器是维持催化裂化反应-再生系统热平衡和保持装置平稳运行的关键设备之一。外取热器的优化设计和合理调控,要求深入理解外取热器内的流动特性、换热特性及两者之间关系。在一套大型冷模热态实验装置上,分别考察了表观气速、颗粒质量流率对换热管附近的局部固含率和气泡频率、床层与换热管间传热系数的影响。结果表明:增加表观气速可以降低局部固含率、增加局部气泡频率、强化床层与换热管间换热;随着颗粒质量流率增加,局部固含率和局部气泡频率均增加;在较低表观气速下,增加颗粒质量流率不利于换热,而在较高表观气速下,传热系数随颗粒质量流率逐渐增加。不同流型下,气固流动特性对换热特性的影响不同。在鼓泡床流型下,过高的局部固含率不利于颗粒在换热表面的更新,增加换热管附近的局部气泡频率可以明显强化换热;而在湍流床流型下,换热管附近的局部固含率和气泡频率的增加,均使传热系数逐渐增大。建立了针对不同流型的换热经验关联式,预测值与实验值的平均相对偏差分别为6.9%和1.3%。     

High-velocity fluidization of solid particles in a liquid-solid circulating fluidized bed system

Particulate and aggregative fluidizations in a liquid-solid circulating fluidized bed system are characterized by chaotic time series analysis of local voidage and heat transfer fluctuations in terms of the correlation dimension and Kolmogorov entropy. Both correlation dimension and Komogorov entropy of the voidate fluctuation are found to decrease with decreasing bed voidage in both fluidization regimes, suggesting the suppression of chaotic motion of individual particles due to high solid concentration. The correlation dimension of the heat transfer fluctation in the aggregative fluidization regime is higher than that in the particulate fluidization regime. This reflects the complex convective motion of liquid and solid phases induced by the formation of the liquid streaks and aggregates of particles.     

De- and rehydration of Ca(OH)2 in a reactor with direct heat transfer for thermo-chemical heat storage. Part A: Experimental results

Heat storage technologies are used to improve energy efficiency of power plants and recovery of process heat. Storing thermal energy by reversible thermo-chemical reactions offers a promising option for high storage capacities especially at high temperatures. Due to its low material cost the use of the reversible reaction Ca(OH)₂ ? CaO + H₂O has been suggested. This paper reports on the thermal behavior of a reactor with direct heat transfer between the gaseous reactant and the solid material. Cycling stability is confirmed and the impact of the most significant parameters such as the maximum possible enthalpy difference of the heat transfer fluid between inlet and outlet, the heat transfer, the particle reaction rate and the mass transport is derived. In the test system the particle reaction rate could be identified as the main limiting parameter.     

The measurement of instantaneous local heat transfer coefficients in a circulating fluidized bed

Instantaneous and time-averaged local bed-to-wall heat transfer coefficients were measured in a 9.3 m tall, 152 mm ID cold model circulating fluidized bed riser at three different heights for 171 μm Ottawa sand at a superficial gas velocity of 7 m/s, and for solids circulation fluxes up to about 70 kg/m².s. All data were obtained with an instantaneous heat transfer probe consisting of a thin platinum film deposited on a 1 cm² piece of glass protected by a thin plastic film. Instantaneous heat transfer coefficients in the riser showed sudden and dramatic peaks caused by strands or sheets of particles sweeping past the probe. Consistent with previous work, time-averaged coefficients varied nearly linearly with suspension density. The heat transfer coefficient decreased from the bottom to the middle of the column, and then increased near the top due to an increase in suspension density for the exit geometry employed.     

Correlations for critical fluidization velocity and maximum bed pressure drop for heterogeneous binary mixture of irregular particles in gas–solid tapered fluidized beds

The tapered fluidized bed is a remedial measure for certain drawbacks of the gas–solid system, by the fact that a velocity gradient exists along the axial direction of the bed with increase in cross-sectional area. To study the dynamic characteristics of heterogeneous binary mixture of irregular particles, several experiments have been carried out with varying tapered angles and composition of the mixtures with various particles. The tapered angle of the bed has been found to affect the characteristics of the bed. Models based on dimensional analysis have been proposed to predict the critical fluidization velocity and maximum bed pressure drop for gas–solid tapered fluidized beds. Experimental values of critical fluidization velocity and maximum bed pressure drop compare well with that predicted by the proposed models and the average absolute errors are well within 15%.     

Studies on the effects of various design and operational parameters on solid circulation rate in a recirculating fluidized bed

Effects of various operational parameters, such as draft tube superficial air velocity and solid inventory and design parameters such as jet diameter and clearance between perforated plate and draft tube bottom on the solid circulation rate of a recirculating fluidized bed are studied. A simple butterfly valve arrangement was used for the direct measurement of the solid circulation rate.     

Effect of annular fins on heat transfer of a horizontal immersed tube in bubbling fluidized beds

Experiments were conducted in a bubbling air-fluidized bed to investigate the effect of annular fins of constant thickness on heat transfer. Steady state time averaged local heat transfer coefficient measurements were made by the local thermal simulation technique in a cold bubbling fluidized bed (90 mm ID, 260 mm tall) with horizontally immersed tube initially with no fin and then with three fixed annular fins of constant thickness. Silica sand of mean particle diameter 307 μm and 200 μm were used as the bed materials. The superficial velocity of air was from minimum fluidization conditions, u_mf, to approximately 3 × u_mf. The results indicate that, although the heat transfer coefficient falls with the use of fins, the total heat transfer rises as a result of the greater surface area. Increasing the particle diameter reduces the heat transfer coefficient not only for unfinned horizontal tube but also for annular finned horizontal tube at the same conditions of fluidized bed. Based on the experimental data, correlations are proposed for predicting heat transfer coefficient from fluidized bed to horizontally immersed tubes with and without fins.     

Prediction of critical fluidization velocity and maximum bed pressure drop for binary mixture of regular particles in gas–solid tapered fluidized beds

The problems associated with conventional (cylindrical) fluidized beds, viz., fluidization of wider size range of particles, entrainment of particles and limitation of fluidization velocity could be overcome by using tapered fluidized beds. Limited work has been carried out to study the hydrodynamics of single materials with uniform size particles in tapered beds. In the present work, an attempt has been made to study the hydrodynamic characteristics of binary mixtures of homogeneous and heterogeneous regular particles (glass bead and sago) in tapered fluidized beds having different tapered angles. Correlations have been developed for critical fluidization velocity and maximum bed pressure drop for gas–solid tapered fluidized beds for binary mixtures of regular particles. Model predictions were compared with experimental data, which were in good agreement.     

De- and rehydration of Ca(OH)2 in a reactor with direct heat transfer for thermo-chemical heat storage. Part B: Validation of model

Heat storage technologies are used to improve energy efficiency of power plants and recovery of process heat. Storing thermal energy by reversible thermo-chemical reactions offers a promising option for high storage capacities especially at high temperatures. Due to its low material cost the use of the gas–solid reaction Ca(OH)₂ ? CaO + H₂O has been suggested. In Part A of this work the thermal behavior of a reactor with direct heat transfer was experimentally investigated. In this part a two-dimensional model is applied for the specified system. The experimental and simulated results during the exothermic hydration are discussed in order to confirm the validity of the model. The model is validated regarding heat transfer, integral reaction rate and maximum temperatures. In addition, an adaptation of the kinetic equation is proposed in order to take into account rate-limiting effects due to agglomeration in the powder bed.     

Particle collision behavior and heat transfer performance in a Na2SO4 circulating fluidized bed evaporator

The particle collision behavior and heat transfer performance are investigated to reveal the heat transfer enhancement and fouling prevention mechanism in a Na₂SO₄ circulating fluidized bed evaporator. The particle collision signals are analyzed with standard deviation by varying the amount of added particles ε (1%–3%), circulation flow velocity u (0.37–1.78 m·s^-1), and heat flux q (7.29–12.14 kW·m^-2). The results show that the enhancement factor reach up to 14.6% by adding polytetrafluoroethylene particles at ε = 3%, u = 1.78 m·s^-1, and q = 7.29 kW·m^-2. Both the standard deviation of the particle collision signal and enhancement factor increase with the increase in the amount of added particles. The standard deviation increases with the increase in circulation flow velocity; however, the enhancement factor initially decreases and then increases. The standard deviation slightly decreases with the increase in heat flux at low circulation flow velocity, but initially increases and then decreases at high circulation flow velocity. The enhancement factor decreases with the increase in heat flux. The enhancement factor in Na₂SO₄ solution is superior to that in water at high amount of added particles. The empirical correlation for heat transfer is established, and the model results agree well with the experimental data.     

An investigation of the heat transfer behavior of longitudinal finned membrane water wall tubes in circulating fluidized bed boilers

Experiments were conducted in a cold model circulating fluidized bed (CFB) having riser cross sectional area of 100 mm × 100 mm, height of 4.8 m, bed temperature of 75°C and superficial velocity of 8 ms^− 1. Local sand having average diameter of 231 μm, particle density of 2774 kg m^− 3 and bulk density of 1515 kg m^− 3 was used as bed material. The experiments were conducted for three tube configurations: a membrane tube, a membrane tube with a longitudinal fin at the tube crest and a membrane tube with two longitudinal fins at 45° on both sides of the tube crest. Heat transfer, heat transfer coefficient ratio and heat transfer ratio of the three tubes are presented as a function of cross sectional average suspension density. The results show that membrane tubes with one and two longitudinal fins have higher heat transfer than membrane tubes although they have lower heat transfer coefficient. In addition, numerical simulations were conducted to investigate the heat transfer behavior of the three tubes under the normal operating conditions of CFB boilers. It was found that the membrane tube with two longitudinal fins at 45° on both sides of the tube crest had the flattest inner wall tube heat flux profile. Moreover, in terms of temperature distribution in the tube material, it has the lowest profile.     

Numerical and experimental analyses of anti‐fouling and heat transfer in the heat exchanger with circulating fluidized bed

Fluidized bed type heat exchangers are known to increase the heat transfer and prevent the fouling. For proper design of circulating fluidized bed heat exchanger it is important to know the effect of design and operating parameters on the bed to the wall heat transfer coefficient. The numerical analysis by using CFX 11.0 commercial code was done for proper design of the heat exchanger. The present experimental studies were also conducted to investigate the effects of circulating solid particles on the characteristics of fluid flow, heat transfer, and cleaning effect in the fluidized bed vertical shell and tube type heat exchanger with counterflow, at which a variety of solid particles such as glass (3 mmØ), aluminum (2–3 mmØ), steel (2–2.5 mmØ), copper (2.5 mmØ), and sand (2–4 mmØ) were used in the fluidized bed with a smooth tube. Seven different solid particles have the same volume, and the effects of various parameters such as water flow rates, particle diameter, materials, and geometry were investigated. The present experimental and numerical results showed that the flow velocity range for collision of particles to the tube wall was higher with heavier density solid particles, and the increase in heat transfer was in the order of sand, copper, steel, aluminum, and glass. This behaviour might be attributed to the parameters such as surface roughness or particle heat capacity. Fouling examination using 25,500 ppm of ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃) revealed that the tube inside wall is cleaned by a mild and continuous scouring action of fluidized solid particles. The fluidized solid particles not only keep the surface clean, but they also breakup the boundary layer improving the heat transfer coefficient even at low‐fluid velocities.     

Mass transfer in fluidized beds of inert particles Part II: Effect of particle size and density

The mass transfer rate in fluidized beds of inert particles (FIB) is shown to be dependent on the electrolyte flow velocity and the intensity of particle collisions with the electrode. The influence of particle size and density on the ratio of the magnitude of these two influences on the mass transfer rate in a FIB was studied. Use of particle materials of varying density in an FIB permits variation of the two effects. The influence of collision currents prevails in FIBs of low density materials, and the influence of interstitial velocity is dominant in beds of high density material. The ratio of these factors also depends on the size of particles of the same density. With smaller particle size the influence of collision currents is greater. Smoothing of mass transfer maxima in beds of particles both of small and high density is explained. The results establish a basis for the selection of FIB materials for electrochemical processes.