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Definition of the problem In the current ethical debate on physician-assisted suicide in Germany new sanctions in criminal law are debated from different sides. Whereas in the beginning the debate focused only on the ban of organised forms of suicide assistance, the explicit licensing of assisted suicide is also now requested by physicians. Arguments Considering the approach to include prohibition of assisted suicide within the German Criminal Code, the article shows that the impunity of suicide and suicide assistance has a long tradition in Germany. The impunity of assisted suicide cannot only be systematically and factually justified, but also in terms of content. A criminalization can be neither legally nor ethically justified. Conclusion The authors advocate—with reference to different legal drafts in the German Federal Parliament (Deutscher Bundestag)—for an open discourse within the medical profession and for a revision of the professional law.  相似文献   

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Definition of the problem

An increasing number of young refugees whose ages are not reliably known is thrusting the problem of medical and dental age estimation via x?ray examinations to the forefront of public discussion. Despite continual criticism of the organised German medical profession for this procedure and its associated radiation exposure for nonmedical purposes, x?raying the carpal bone, the clavicle or the teeth to determine age remains common practice. Consequently, the official verification of asylum seekers’ ages has considerable ramifications since refugee minors have particular rights.

Arguments

In previous discourse(s) about the proportionality of approximating the age of young asylum seekers via x?rays, the relevance of the radiological examination of the wisdom teeth is indeed always referred to; however, the specific role of dentists is by comparison rarely discussed from a medical–ethical perspective. As a matter of fact, in 2001 and 2008 the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Zahn-, Mund- und Kieferheilkunde (DGZMK; English: German Association for Dentistry, Stomatology and Orthodontics) published scientific position papers in which the comprehensive radiological verification of the age of young refugees is endorsed – with the distinct omission of an ethical discussion.

Conclusion

In light of these disparate findings, it should be investigated just how suitable, necessary and ethically appropriate dental procedures for the purposes of age determination are. The methodical foundations of this paper are (1) a comprehensive evaluation of available specialist literature, in addition to (2) a critical normative analysis of the main arguments presented by the named specialist society. Especially ethically discussing these position papers is a desideratum for ethics in dentistry. This discussion also serves as an opportunity to apply the international debate on age determination to Germany’s framework.
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Definition of the problem

Based on the positions of Ronald Dworkin, Rebecca Dresser and Agnieszka Jaworska, this paper analyzes the tension between prolonged and actual autonomy performed by dementia sufferers and combines the discussion concerning the autonomy of the persons involved with an account of practical selfhood, the patients are able to maintain in the first and second state of the illness.

Arguments

Theoretical background for this debate between the possibilities and limits of the autonomy of dementia sufferers is the distinction between two types of positions. The first one regards the concept of personhood as equivalent to the notion of human beings, the other one holds that both terms are not equivalent. These accounts help to classify the positions of Dworkin and Dresser. By the inclusion of Jaworska’s account, who ascribes persons affected with dementia a so-called capacity to value, this paper aims to show that the distinction between those approaches, which regard the concept of personhood as equivalent resp. not equivalent to the notion of human beings and which themselves argue for a broad resp. limited understanding of the patient autonomy of dementia sufferers, fall short.

Conclusion

Instead, following Jaworska and the patient’s capacities to perform value judgements, the paper points to a concept of personhood, which is not based on advanced rational abilities as it is claimed by non-equivalent accounts. However, this concept accepts weaker conditions for performing patient autonomy without being merged into an understanding of relational autonomy. Besides this, this approach can be extended to a broader concept of practical selfhood performed by dementia patients.
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Definition of the problem Theorists who support the legalisation of active euthanasia usually base their arguments on the principle of autonomy. In their view the wish of a severely ill person not to continue his or her life must be respected. However, some opponents of the legalisation of active euthanasia refer to the principle of autonomy as well. Arguments They are concerned that patients may be held responsible for burdening others with the provision of care. Thus family members, physicians or nurses may exert pressure on patients to opt for active euthanasia. In this article it is argued that these worries are justified; the occurrence of social coercion poses a real danger. Conclusion However, neither the prohibition nor the permission of active euthanasia enables each individual to make an autonomous choice. Comparing the risks involved in both options, legalisation seems to be preferable to maintaining the status quo.  相似文献   

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Zusammenfassung   Einhergehend mit den Fortschritten in der Reanimationsmedizin besch?ftigen sich seit den 80er Jahren viele Studien mit der prognostischen Güte von reanimations- und patientenbezogenen Akutmarkern. Generell sollen Prognosemarker die Vorhersagbarkeit des Heilungspotenzials erlauben, sie besitzen dadurch eine Steuerfunktion für das weitere Therapiekonzept. Die Wertigkeit dieser Pr?diktoren ver?ndert sich jedoch, wenn sie als Determinanten bei Non-Treatment-Entscheidungen herangezogen werden. Dies aus zwei Gründen: 1. Nach Sichtung der Literatur und eingedenk eigener Studienresultate fehlt bislang ein 100%- sicherer Prognose-Algorithmus für Patienten im posthypoxischen Koma. 2. Der komat?se Patient kann an der Beurteilung der Prognoseaussagen selbst nicht teilnehmen. Es stellt sich somit die Frage: Dürfen Prognosemarker unser moralisches Handeln an der Grenze des Lebens leiten? Die Autoren bejahen diese Frage und sehen eine ad?quat moralische Handlungsoption in der Durchführung einer diskurs-pragmatischen Patientenkonferenz. Den Prognosemarkern kommt hier eine Stellvertreterfunktion im Sinne eines „stillen Patientenargumentes“ zu, wodurch die potenzielle Dialogf?higkeit des Patienten als moralisches Anspruchsobjekt gewahrt wird. Im Rahmen einer diskursiven Er?rterung wird dann der Einfluss der Prognosedaten an der Entscheidung gewichtet.   相似文献   

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Definition of the problem

Because determining a patient’s decision-making competence has far-reaching ethical and legal implications, the concept of competence must be clearly understood. The criteria for competence are commonly defined in terms of mental abilities; more basic questions as to whether competence refers to an inherent ability or to an ethical judgment are rarely discussed in more detail.

Arguments

A central aspect of this distinction between ability and judgment concerns the significance of ethical considerations relating to paternalism and its legitimacy. Where competence is conceived as inherent ability, such considerations follow a determination of competence; where it is conceived as ethical judgment, these matters become constitutive of understanding and determining competence.

Conclusion

Despite the observed tendency to understand competence ideally as an inherent ability, actual practice suggests that, to the contrary, competence is conceived as a matter of ethical judgment. These conflicting tendencies may account for associated conceptual controversies, especially with regard to risk-relative evaluations. Moreover, conceived as judgment, determinations of competence need not adhere rigidly to definitions of autonomy, and so are better able to deal with the inherent ambiguity of this notion.
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Zusammenfassung  Die Frage nach der Gerechtigkeit im Gesundheitswesen wird aus der Perspektive einer allgemeinen Theorie der Gerechtigkeit betrachtet. Diese Theorie ist ein Befähigungsansatz, der zwischen 1) der Grundversorgung aller Bürger mit Grundbefähigungen, 2) einem gerechten Anteil an den Früchten gesellschaftlicher Kooperation und 3) individuell erstrebten Gütern und Leistungen differenziert. Die Anwendung dieser Theorie reagiert auf charakteristische Probleme der Allokation im Gesundheitssektor: den prinzipiell ungedeckten Bedarf, die mangelnde Zurechenbarkeit des Bedarfes und die asymmetrische Informationsstruktur zwischen Patienten und Leistungserbringern.
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Fall und Kommentare

Sch?n warm zudecken ...  相似文献   

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Definition of the problem:

Being satisfied with one’s work depends on professional autonomy, which is attributed to the medical profession to a high degree, combined with specialized knowledge and moral authority for vital questions. That is why physicians enjoy a high reputation. At the beginning of a person's medical career, moral competence is developed nearly completely, but specialized knowledge must be learned. Hospitals, in which further medical education regularly takes place, are still traditionally hierarchically organized today. Unfortunately, feudalistic or military structures hinder autonomous moral decisions and cause structural irresponsibility.

Arguments:

Obstructions and pressure by superiors, financial restrictions, arrogance and trying to make one's mark are shown in typical conflict situations. Stress, discontent, moral conflicts and illness, even including burn out are possible. Commitment and creativity by employees are prevented and mistakes cannot be constructively managed. Thus, patients may suffer unreasonably or be hurt.

Conclusion:

There is a risk to subordinate moral principles under other interests, not only with subordinates but also with superiors. Ways to create a culture that promotes autonomy among physicians and between different professions are discussed. Therefore it is necessary to institutionalize communication based on a reciprocal high regard in a team with people treated as equal partners, who are then able to discuss moral questions in a discourse.  相似文献   

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Zusammenfassung  Der Beitrag untersucht mögliche Kriterien für die normative Bewertung der künstlichen Ernährung bei nichteinwilligungsfähigen Patienten. Der in der aktuellen Diskussion immer wieder unternommene Versuch, den verpflichtenden Charakter bestimmter Formen der Ernährung aufgrund ihrer Zuordnung zu den Kategorien Basisbetreuung oder Remedia ordinaria zu begründen, erweist sich als naturalistischer Fehlschluss. Die Rechtfertigung der künstlichen Nahrungs- und Flüssigkeitszufuhr setzt vielmehr—wie die jeder anderen medizinischen Maßnahme—voraus, dass ihre Durchführung medizinisch begründet und vom Patienten gewollt ist. Dies trifft grundsätzlich auch auf den nicht mehr einwilligungsfähigen Patienten zu; bei diesem kommt es auf den früher erklärten oder mutmaßlichen Willen an.
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Definition of the problem In clinical research and practice, the new paradigm of “personalised medicine” raises questions about necessity, expectations, possibilities and risks. In an ongoing empirical–ethical study, we explore the perspectives of both researchers and patients regarding the implementation of “personalised medicine” in the treatment of locally advanced rectal cancer. This study focuses on ethically relevant aspects in practice, including expectations towards, counseling on, and decision for “personalized” treatment, or research. Methods We conducted interviews (with 19 researchers and physicians and 28 patients) and participant observations during physician–patient consultations (n = 50). Arguments Uncovering differences and similarities in the perspectives of affected patients and physicians will allow potential conflicts in clinical practice to be detected and addressed as early as possible. Conclusions We were able to demonstrate that patients and physicians have different perspectives on “personalised medicine”. This might lead to conflicts in clinical practice that should be addressed as early as possible.  相似文献   

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Zusammenfassung.   Auch nach dem Beschlu? des Gesetzgebers zugunsten einer sogenannten Informationsl?sung bleibt das Problem angemessener Vergabekriterien für die vorhandenen Organe, da diese Frage im neuen Organspendegesetz nicht abschlie?end gekl?rt ist. In dem Beitrag werden verschiedene Allokationsverfahren bezüglich ihrer gesellschaftlichen Akzeptanz und ?konomischen Effizienz beurteilt. Dazu werden medizinische Kriterien (z.B. HLA-Kompatibilt?t) und nicht-medizinsche Kriterien (z.B. Zahlungsbereitschaft des Spenders oder Zufall) anhand verschiedener allgemein akzeptierter Zielsetzungen (z.B. gleicher Zugang zu Gesundheitsleistungen oder geringe Kosten) abgewogen. Als innovative Form eines Organgewinnungssystemes wird die Clubl?sung vorgestellt, die den Spendern erlaubt, Pr?ferenzen bei der Verwendung der Organe zu realisieren. Scoringsysteme k?nnen darüber hinaus helfen, die Transparenz der Organverteilung zu erh?hen. Aus ?konomischer Sicht sind dabei vor allem medizinische Kriterien relativ zu nicht-medizinischen Merkmalen st?rker zu gewichten.   相似文献   

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Definition of the problem

The relationship between ethics consultation (EC) and psychological supervision (PS), established, for example, in the psychiatric context or palliative care, has received little investigation. This amounts to a research gap on the specific practice of the two approaches that contributes to an uncertainty or even conceptual lack of clarity in the perception of both users and—partly—providers, especially regarding possible indication criteria. In this paper, we will study commonalities and differences of EC and PS as well as their methodological and practical characteristics by mutually referring to two clinical case examples from both approaches also highlighting emerging contrasts.

Reasoning and results

As a result of the case-based and methodological analysis, distinctive criteria are presented. These include the following: (1) objectives of each approach, (2) access and demand characteristics, (3) content, (4) focus, (5) methodology, (6) role of consultant/counsellor, (7) results, (8) documentation, (9) working with emotions, (10) explicit reference to ethical issues.

Conclusions

While articulating an overlap identified and illustrated in the comparison between EC and PS and the respective case studies, we conclude that the two approaches should not be regarded as mutually exchangeable. Rather, we suggest that any mixture or combination of both cannot be recommended as this might lead to watering down the specificity of each approach and its respective strengths. Furthermore, preliminary suggestions are offered for the specific indication of EC or PS covering also pragmatic considerations such as the particular motivation of participants and the immediate availability of service.
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Zusammenfassung.   Die Ressourcenknappheit hat zu einer progredienten Regularisierung ?rztlichen Handelns geführt, überwiegend durch staatliche und institutionelle Richt- und Leitlinien. Aber nicht nur der Spardruck, sondern ebenso „offiziell” instrumentierte Wissenschaft kann ?rztliches Denken und damit ethische Reflexion behindern – selbst wenn sie in der optimalen Form evidenzbasierter Leitlinien auftritt. ”Futility” als Begriff ist in den USA l?ngst aus einer andauernden theoretischen Diskussion in die klinische Praxis eingedrungen. Vor allem bei bedrohlichen Erkrankungen am Ende des Lebens gibt es formalisierte Entscheidungswege; etwa im Sinne der prozeduralen Festlegung einer ”Do-Not-Attempt-Resuscitation Order” (DNAR). Unentrinnbar ist die Frage nach dem Sinn und der Vergeblichkeit ?rztlichen Handelns mit derjenigen nach der Entscheidungsmacht im medizinischen Alltag verknüpft. Regularisierungsversuche, die von der Makroebene der Gesundheits?konomie ausgehen, interferieren mit den h?ufig ebenso machtf?rmigen Entscheidungsprozessen in der unmittelbaren Patientenversorgung. Das gilt auch bei der Balance der Interessen von Patienten einschlie?lich ihrer pers?nlichen und juristischen Vertreter mit den fachlichen Ansprüchen der ?rzte. Die schlichte übernahme des Konzeptes der ”Futility” aus den USA ist angesichts der ungel?sten Komplexit?t der Interferenzen von Makro- und Mikroebene in Deutschland wenig sinnvoll, da es zu sehr auf die spezifischen Verh?ltnisse der amerikanischen Medizin zugeschnitten ist. Andererseits helfen die konkret praktikablen Kategorien der ”Futility” gegen das Ausufern von Grundsatzdiskussionen im europ?ischen Stil.   相似文献   

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