Intergroup discrimination and self-esteem in the minimal group paradigm.

Tested the hypothesis that intergroup discrimination (IGD) in the minimal group paradigm is related to self-esteem. According to social identity theory, IGD is a strategy for achieving self-esteem via social competition aimed at increasing the positive distinctiveness of one's own group. However, other elements of the procedure, such as categorization into groups or the opportunity to engage in a meaningful experimental task irrespective of its value for social competition, might also affect self-esteem. 135 undergraduates were randomly assigned to 8 concurrent experimental conditions. A 2-way MANOVA on the core design produced a significant interaction effect, whereby categorized Ss who had the opportunity to discriminate between groups and noncategorized Ss who did not discriminate showed higher self-esteem than did both categorized Ss who could not engage in discrimination and noncategorized Ss who could discriminate. Results support social identity theory and suggest that social categorization by itself may constitute a threat to self-esteem that can be resolved via social competition. Results from the supplementary conditions support the conclusion that it is IGD, and not merely the completion of an experimental task, that redeems self-esteem. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social influence processes in group brainstorming.

A series of studies examined the role of social influence processes in group brainstorming. Two studies with pairs and 1 with groups of 4 revealed that the performance of participants in interactive groups is more similar than the performance of those in nominal groups. A 4th study demonstrated that performance levels in an initial group session predicted performance on a different problem 2 sessions later. In a 5th study it was found that the productivity gap between an interactive and nominal group could be eliminated by giving interactive group members a performance standard comparable with the typical performance of nominal groups. These studies indicate that performance levels in brainstorming groups are strongly affected by exposure to information about the performance of others. It is proposed that social matching of low performance levels by interactive group members may be an important factor in the productivity loss observed in group brainstorming. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exploring general systems processes in group settings.

Redefines group dynamics as boundary processes having distinctive systems and object-relations properties. A historical analysis is offered that leads to a modern functional definition of group dynamics as communicative signals requiring some form of intervention or response from the therapist. The boundary properties of both the original group dynamic process and the leader's ultimate response need to be articulated from a systems vantage point. The most effective and systems opening forms of intervention require a solid comprehension and grasp on the part of the therapist of the significant dynamic processes occurring within the group. A systems approach offers contemporary group therapists numerous strategic options and a greater variety of intervention possibilities in their response to the dynamic processes taking place in their groups. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparative processes in personal and group judgments: Resolving the discrepancy.

The judgment mechanisms underlying personal- and group-level ratings of discrimination and privilege were investigated in high- and low-status groups. A consistent personal–group discrepancy is found for discrimination and privilege but is not due to personal differentiation from the group. Instead, personal and group ratings are based on different comparison standards and levels of self (personal vs. social identity); personal motives influence personal ratings, and social motivations influence group ratings. This analysis is supported by contrasting the traditional discrepancy score with a direct comparison measure (Study 2) and by showing the sensitivity of group ratings (but not personal ratings) to group audience and degree of group identification (Studies 3 and 4). Studying the different meanings communicated with personal and group ratings provides more insight into the dimensions of deprivation than do analyses of discrepancy scores. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive and consensus processes in group recognition memory performance.

This experiment applies signal detection theory and social decision schemes to investigate the potential impact of information pooling, error correction, and effective decision-making processes in the general finding that groups perform better than individuals on memory tasks. Groups and individuals completed a true/false recognition test regarding material presented in a videotaped simulated job interview. Various indexes of memory performance indicated that each of the processes contributed to the superiority of group recognition memory performance. Social decision scheme analyses indicated that the plurality-correct-wins decision scheme was the best summary of the decision process. Subsequent analyses suggested that the confidence that group members held in their initial preferences influenced the group decision process. Discussion emphasized the impact of consensus, correctness, and confidence on group memory performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of therapeutic factors in group and individual treatment processes.

Group and individual treatments have equivalent outcomes, but little is understood about the therapeutic processes in these treatment modalities; therefore, similarities and differences in the therapeutic process were explored. Critical incident obtained from 20 individual and 20 group clients were rated on 4 dimensions of session impact: emotional awareness–insight, relationship–climate, other- versus self-focus, and problem definition–change) using the Group Counseling Helpful Impacts Scale (D. A Kivlighan, Jr., K. D. Multon, & D. F. Brossart, 1996). The findings of this study indicate different therapeutic processes in group and individual treatments. Ratings of relationship–climate and other-versus self-focus impacts were higher in the group participants' critical incident forms, whereas emotional awareness–insight and problem definition–change ratings were higher in the critical incident reports of individual treatment participants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disentangling achievement orientation and goal setting: Effects on self-regulatory processes.

H. Heckhausen and J. Kuhl's (1985) goal typology provided the conceptual foundation for this research, which examined the independent and integrated effects of achievement orientation and goal-setting approaches on trainees' self-regulatory activity. Using a complex computer-based simulation, the authors examined the effects of 3 training design factors--goal frame, goal content, and goal proximity--cutting across these 2 theoretical domains on the nature, focus, and quality of the self-regulatory activities of 524 trainees. Results revealed that all 3 factors had a significant influence on self-regulation, with goal content exhibiting the greatest influence. In line with expectations, congruent learning frame and content compared with congruent performance frame and content was beneficial for trainees' self-regulatory activity, incongruent combinations of goal frame and content were better than congruent performance frames and content, and effects for the incongruent combinations cutting across the domains were asymmetrical. Theoretical extensions for further disentangling these distinct domains and training design implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring group processes: A comparison of the GCQ and CCI.

This study verified and compared the factor structures of two frequently used measures of small group climate, the Group Climate Questionnaire (GCQ-S; MacKenzie, 1983) and the Curative Climate Instrument (CCI; Fuhriman, Drescher, Hanson, Henrie, & Rybicki, 1986) at both group and individual levels. Data included third session assessments of 124 group members in 20 university counseling center groups. Confirmatory factor analyses partially supported the GCQ factor structure, but indicated that the Catharsis subscale of the CCI was not independent of the other two CCI subscales. Factor analysis of the six subscales from both measures yielded two higher order factors, representing positive (Engagement, Cohesion, Insight, and Catharsis) and negative (Conflict and Avoidance) group processes. Findings provide guidance for interpreting and comparing group processes using these measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Microcomputer learning in small groups: Cognitive requirements and group processes.

35 self-selected 11–14 yr olds learned LOGO for 1 wk in 3-person groups that were homogeneous with respect to previous experience with computers. A battery of cognitive pretests yielded different profiles that were used to predict different programming outcomes. Ss were posttested for achievement. Results show that mathematics ability was the best predictor of knowledge of syntax, interpreting graphics programs, and generating relations programs. Spatial ability was the best predictor of knowledge of basic commands. A combination of spatial ability and field independence best predicted generating graphics programs. Of 11 group process variables examined, 5 predicted programming outcomes: receiving explanations in response to errors (positively related), receiving explanations in response to questions (negatively related), not receiving explanations after an error (negatively related), receiving no response to a question (negatively related), and time at the keyboard (positively related). No student demographic characteristic or ability was related to the 5 group process variables. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ultrasound differentiation of fibroadenoma and diagnosis of minimal carcinoma of the breast

Extragonadal germ-cell tumors (EGCT) are uncommon and biologically distinct from their gonadal counterparts. Thirty-seven patients who had EGCT were treated over a ten-year period at the Regional Cancer Centre, Trivandrum, India. There were 26 men and boys and 11 women and girls. The sites of primary tumor were mediastinum (n=18), central nervous system (n=5), sacrococcygeal region (n=4), retroperitoneum (n=2), and other sites (n=8). After combined modality therapy, 13 of 18 patients who had mediastinal EGCT--1 of 2 with retroperitoneal, 1 of 4 with sacrococcygeal, 0 of 5 with central nervous system, and 2 of 8 patients with tumor in other sites-were alive with no evidence of disease at a median follow-up of 16 months. The overall 5-year survival rate was 40%. Histologic subtype and elevated marker levels were the significant prognostic factors on univariate analysis.     

The effects of goal setting and group size on performance in a social dilemma.

Examined the effect of self-set personal and assigned group goal setting on an individual's behavior in 3- and 7-person groups confronted with a social dilemma. 274 Ss earned between $1.82 and $4.94 by investing money in either a personal account or a group account. Self-set personal goals that were compatible with an assigned group goal led to higher group performance than self-set incompatibly high ("greedy") personal goals. Collective-efficacy in making money, outcome expectancies that cooperation with others leads to the attainment of the group's goal, and group goal commitment correlated positively with group performance. Ss in 7-person groups (N?=?28) were less cooperative than those in 3-person groups (N?=?26). Ss in 7-person groups had lower collective-efficacy, lower outcome expectancies, and lower commitment to the group goal than did Ss in 3-person groups. Furthermore, individual performance in 7-person groups was significantly lower than individual performance in 3-person groups. A social dilemma appears to be a boundary condition for the normally positive effect of group goal setting on group performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individuality and group formation: The role of independence and differentiation.

This research examined the interplay of group formation and individualization processes with a particular emphasis on minority and majority groups. First, a 2-component theory of individuality that distinguishes between individuality as independence and as differentiation from other people was presented, tested, and cross-validated in 2 questionnaire studies. Next, a pilot experiment provided first support for the working assumption that the salience of the differentiation or independence components of individuality differentially affect minority and majority group formation. Finally, the main experiment demonstrated that these individuality effects on minority and majority group formation are due largely to a differential orientation toward either intergroup or intragroup comparisons. This experiment also uncovered a unique effect of relative in-group size, but this effect was limited to similarity-based group formation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The group matters: A review of processes and outcomes in intelligence analysis.

The work of intelligence analysts is fundamentally cognitive in nature. Intelligence analysis consists largely of identifying problems, generating and evaluating hypotheses, identifying and assessing open source and classified information, recognizing patterns in large sets of data, aggregating information, and providing results in the form of judgments, forecasts, and insights to policymakers. These activities are often conducted by individuals; however, intelligence agencies and experts have called increasingly for the use of teams in intelligence analysis. This article reviews the research literature on group-level phenomena (that is, process losses) that are most relevant to the work of intelligence analysts, including productivity losses in brainstorming, the common knowledge effect, group polarization, confirmation bias, overconfidence, and pressures toward uniformity. We describe how features of intelligence analysis teams' tasks, context, and structure affect these processes, present methods to minimize these process losses and increase process gains, and discuss directions for future research. Although our focus is on intelligence analysis teams, these processes and interventions are relevant to a range of analytical teams that share common characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of goal setting on group performance: A meta-analysis.

Updating and extending the work of O'Leary-Kelly, Martocchio, and Frink (1994), with this meta-analysis on goal setting and group performance we show that specific difficult goals yield considerably higher group performance compared with nonspecific goals (d = 0.80 ± 0.35, k = 23 effect sizes). Moderately difficult and easy goals were also associated with performance benefits relative to nonspecific goals, but these effects were smaller. The overall effect size for all group goals was d = 0.56 ± 0.19 (k = 49). Unexpectedly, task interdependence, task complexity, and participation did not moderate the effect of group goals. Our inventory of multilevel goals in interdependent groups indicated that the effect of individual goals in groups on group performance was contingent upon the focus of the goal: “Egocentric” individual goals, aimed at maximizing individual performance, yielded a particularly negative group-performance effect (d = –1.75 ± 0.60, k = 6), whereas “groupcentric” goals, aimed at maximizing the individual contribution to the group's performance, showed a positive effect (d = 1.20 ± 1.03, k = 4). These findings demonstrate that group goals have a robust effect on group performance. Individual goals can also promote group performance but should be used with caution in interdependent groups. Future research might explore the role of multilevel goals for group performance in more detail. The striking lack of recent field studies in organizational settings that emerged from our brief review of trends in group goal-setting research should be taken into account when designing future studies in this domain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of group feedback, goal setting, and incentives on organizational productivity.

Productivity research has focused on simple jobs with the individual as the unit of analysis. Most jobs are more complex and, because of the interdependencies in the work, require group-level interventions and more complex measures of performance or productivity. This research presents a new method of measuring productivity, the Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System (ProMES), and uses measures from this approach as a foundation for group-based feedback, goal setting, and incentives. The experimental design consisted of a baseline period of 8 to 9 months, followed by a 5-month period of feedback based on the ProMES. Goal setting was then added to feedback for 5 months. Finally, incentives in the form of time off from work were added to feedback and goal setting for another 5 months. Results indicated that group-level feedback increased productivity an average of 50% over baseline, group goal setting increased productivity 75% over baseline, and group incentives increased productivity 76% over baseline. Control group data showed no or only a slight increase in productivity over the same period, and level of personnel either stayed the same or decreased. In addition, work attitudes such as job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and morale were as good or better following the interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inducing biased scanning in a group setting to change attitudes toward bilingualism and capital punishment.

Triads of 48 male and female Canadian high school students were assigned to debate either capital punishment or bilingualism. Teams were given 40 min to prepare their arguments. Half were told in advance which side of the argument they would be debating, and half were told they would be assigned at the end of their discussion. Scoring of the taped discussions confirmed that this manipulation produced biased scanning of arguments in the predetermined condition and unbiased scanning in the later-determined condition. A postmeasure of attitudes was administered either before or after the actual debate. Biased scanning led to significant attitude change in the predicted direction, and this effect was not influenced by time of presentation of the posttest. Results support the conflict theory of attitude change. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Regional differentiation of blood group frequencies in the Polish population

The paper presents frequency distributions of alleles of eight blood group systems (ABO, MN, Rh, Hp, Gm(a), AcP, PGM1, EsD) in the Polish population. The blood group determinations concerning 10521 individuals (were carried out during paternity testing in regional serological laboratories throughout the country). Detailed information on the place of residence for all the subjects was also available. Blood group frequencies of subjects living in five regions of Poland were compared with historical date. The analysis has shown an almost complete disappearance of genetic variability in respect of the analysed traits between local populations inhabiting various regions of Poland.     

Persuasion and praise as techniques for modifying verbal behavior in a "real-life" group setting.

Investigated the effectiveness of using antecedent persuasive stimulation and response-contingent praise, within a small discussion group context, to modify the rate of verbal participation of Ss in an independent, classroom situation. Ss were 96 male college students who were divided into 12 treatment subgroups and 4 control subgroups of 6 Ss each. 3 treatment conditions were employed: (1) maximum persuasion, (2) maximum praise, and (3) neutral (i.e., minimum persuasion and praise). The treated Ss showed more criterion verbal participation than did the control Ss (.01 level). No differences were found among the 3 treatment conditions. Behavior changes in the treated Ss were attributed to the effects of nonspecific factors in the treatments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of team building on exercise adherence and group task satisfaction in a youth activity setting.

Results from previous research have revealed a positive relationship between team building (TB) and several measures of adherence in adult exercise settings (Carron & Spink, 1993; Spink & Carron, 1993). However, research has yet to examine the efficacy of using a TB intervention to impact the exercise adherence of youth. The main purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a TB intervention on specific adherence behaviors of youth in an exercise club setting. A second purpose was to investigate the effects of TB on participant's satisfaction with the group's functioning (group task satisfaction). Participants were 122 youth (13–17 years) participating in 10 rural, school-based exercise clubs. Clubs were randomized into five TB (n=65) and five control groups (n=57). Results revealed that following the introduction of the intervention, the two groups differed significantly on the adherence measure of session attendance but not on dropout behavior. Further, significant differences were found between the groups in group task satisfaction. The study findings extend previous TB research to a youth population and support TB as an effective group-based intervention to improve session attendance and group task satisfaction in an exercise setting in this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)