Dehumidification heat transfer on copper surfaces

Heat transfer during dehumidification on a vertical copper surface is studied and a correlation was developed to relate the heat transfer coefficient, relative humidity, and surface-to-ambient temperature difference. The heat transfer coefficient at various humidity levels and surface-to-ambient temperature differences were obtained experimentally. Variations of about ～200% in heat transfer coefficient were observed between low and high humidity levels. Unlike for pure condensation, it was observed that the heat transfer coefficient is higher for filmwise condensation than for dropwise condensation. It is hypothesized that the non-condensable gas insulates regions where condensation does not take place.     

Dropwise condensation heat transfer of steam on a polytethefluoroethylene film

bouctionThe higher heat tranSfer phae due todroPwise condensation as cOmPared with filIncondensation had bo inveshgated extensively by manyresearchers durin the past sixty years["n. Grea PrOgI'esshad been Inade in understanding the IneCanisms fordroPwise condensation pessP'q, However unscondensation mode had not been widely aPPlied toPIaedcal heat exchanger devices due tO the crucialProblem of han an effeChve method formanhaurin the bopwise condensation sbos.ReCetly, the successful aP…     

Condensation heat transfer enhancement in the presence of non-condensable gas using the interfacial effect of dropwise condensation

Heat transfer characteristics of dropwise condensation (DWC) were experimentally studied on a vertical plate for a variety of non-condensable gas (NCG) concentration, saturation pressure, and surface sub-cooling degree. As the heat transfer performance was dominated by the vapor diffusion process near the interface of the gas–liquid within the gas phase, the additional thermal resistance of the coating layer may not be strictly limited, a fluorocarbon coating was applied to promote dropwise condensation mode. Compared with the traditional filmwise condensation (FWC), heat and mass transfer with NCG can be enhanced with the dropwise condensation mode. In the present paper, the effect of condensate liquid resistance should not be regarded as the most vital factor to explain the results, but the vapor diffusion process. This is attributed to the liquid–vapor interfacial perturbation motion caused by coalescence and departure of condensate droplets. The results also demonstrated that the feature of droplets departure is the dominant factor for the steam–air condensation heat transfer enhancement.     

水平管外TFE/NMP部分膜状冷凝热、质耦合传递过程研究

通过对水平管外双组分(TFE／NMP为三氟乙醇／氮甲基吡咯烷酮)部分膜状冷凝过程特点的分析，建立起部分膜状冷凝过程中热质传递过程的物理模型。以双膜理论为基础，利用部分膜状冷凝的特点，通过对界面传质、液膜内质量平衡、界面相平衡、界面能量平衡和汽膜截面能量平衡的分析计算，得到汽相温度和界面温度分布、汽相及液相NMP质量分数分布，由此进一步计算出冷凝膜厚分布、液膜传热系数分布和热流密度的分布。计算的热流密度与相关实验作了比较，发现与实验能较好的吻合。     

珠状凝结模型对比研究

珠状凝结与膜状凝结相比是一种高效的、有相变的换热方式,得到了广泛关注。介绍了关于珠状凝结换热在实验和理论模型方面的研究状况,并进行了对比。并且考虑了接触角、促进层以及裸露表面强制对流换热的影响,建立了新的计算珠状凝结换热特性的模型,新模型可以计算不同工况下的不同换热结果。将新模型的计算结果与实验数据进行对比,发现二者较为吻合。为进一步研究珠状凝结换热提供了一定的理论依据。     

Dropwise Condensation Heat Transfer on Plasma-Ion-Implanted Small Horizontal Tube Bundles

Stable dropwise condensation of saturated steam was achieved on stainless-steel tube bundles implanted with nitrogen ions by plasma ion implantation. For the investigation of the condensation heat transfer enhancement by plasma ion implantation, a condenser was constructed in order to measure the heat flow and the overall heat transfer coefficient for the condensation of steam on the outside surface of tube bundles. For a horizontal tube bundle of nine tubes implanted with a nitrogen ion dose of 10¹⁶ cm^{? 2}, the enhancement ratio, which represents the ratio of the overall heat transfer coefficient of the implanted tube bundle to that of the unimplanted one, was found to be 1.12 for a cooling-water Reynolds number of about 21,000. The heat flow and the overall heat transfer coefficient were increased by increasing the steam pressure. The maximum overall heat transfer coefficient of 2.22 kW · m^?2· K^?1 was measured at a steam pressure of 2 bar and a cooling-water Reynolds number of about 2,000. At these conditions, more dropwise condensation was formed on the upper tube rows, while the lowest row received more condensate, which converted the condensation form to filmwise condensation.     

Temperatures and the condensate heat resistance in dropwise condensation of multicomponent mixtures with inert gases

The temperature variations occurring in dropwise condensation at condenser plates of a compact, polymer heat exchanger are studied using instantaneous infrared temperature field recordings. An averaging procedure in time and an assessment of extreme values is proposed and carried out. With the results, the heat resistance of the condensate is quantified. It is found that mixing and convection in the condensate, caused by coalescence and drainage of drops, reduces the condensate heat resistance by a factor 4 as compared with purely conductive heat transfer. This reduction is comparable, both in nature and in magnitude, to the effect of enhanced mixing due to turbulence in the liquid film of filmwise condensation. A second condensable species has been added to the gas mixture in order to study the contribution of Marangoni convection due to concentration gradients to the condensate heat transfer resistance. No contribution is found.     

An experimental and theoretical study on the concept of dropwise condensation

Hydrophobic coatings have been created through self-assembled mono layers (SAMs) of n-octadecyl mercaptan (SAM-1) and stearic acid (SAM-2) on copper alloy (99.9% Cu, 0.1% P) surfaces to enhance steam condensation through dropwise condensation. When compared to complete filmwise condensation, n-octadecyl mercaptan (SAM-1) coated surface increased the condensation heat transfer rate by a factor of 3 for copper alloy surfaces, under vacuum condition (33.86 kPa) and to about eight times when operated under atmospheric condition (101 kPa). A model using the population balance concept is used to derive a theoretical formula to predict the drop-size distribution of small drops which grow mainly by direct condensation. All the important resistances to heat transfer such as the heat conduction through the drop, vapor–liquid interface are considered in developing this model. By knowing the contact angle of the drop made with the condensing surface and the maximum drop radius the sweeping effect of large falling drops could be calculated which is also incorporated into the model. The effect of interfacial heat transfer coefficient on heat transfer rate is also considered in developing the theoretical model. This is combined with the well known size distribution for large drops proposed by Le Fevre and Rose [E.J. Le Ferve, J.W. Rose, A theory of heat transfer by dropwise condensation, in: Proceedings of 3rd International Heat Transfer Conference, vol. 2, Chicago, 1966, pp. 362–375] which grow mainly by coalescence. There has been a satisfactory agreement between our experimental data and the present theoretical model.     

Theoretical investigation of stable dropwise condensation heat transfer on a horizontal tube

The heat transfer model of stable dropwise condensation for saturated vapor on a horizontal tube is developed based on previous theoretical models. Through a comprehensive analysis of all the contributing thermal resistances, the convection effect inside the droplet itself is taken into consideration in the model. For the stable dropwise condensation process in dynamic conservation, a method of double integration of heat flux through numerous inclined plates with different inclination angles is introduced to obtain the overall heat flux through the horizontal tube surface. The model can predict the variation of heat transfer of stable dropwise condensation with different contact angles outside a horizontal tube. The influences of contact angle, temperature difference, and other typical parameters on both a single droplet and the whole condensation process are discussed. The results indicate that a high contact angle can cause a size reduction of falling droplets from condensing surface and thus taking more heat away. The adsorbed condensate film adds an extra thermal resistance and its thickness plays a significant role on the dropwise condensation heat transfer.     

Research on Marangoni condensation heat transfer for water and ethanol mixture vapor

A brass block was constructed as a test block to study the Marangoni condensation in this paper. The maximal temperature difference of the block surface on which pure steam condensed was 11^°C when the block was cooled by the normal temperature water. Regulations and modes of Marangoni condensation for mixture vapor with different mass fractions were studied when the speed of vapor was 0.3 m/s. As both temperature gradients and concentration gradients exist on the condensing surface, the experimental results indicate that the maximal heat transfer coefficient of mixture vapor can be 2.8 times that of pure steam when the Marangoni condensation of mixture vapor appears. The heat transfer coefficient of mixture vapor increases with the decrease of surface subcooling, and it appears a steep increase when the surface subcooling is small enough; the heat transfer flux has a maximum value as the surface subcooling rises; and the different modes of condensation are confirmed when the different ethanol concentration and different surface subcooling exist. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Heat Trans Asian Res, 33(8): 505–514, 2004; Published online in Wiley InterScience ( www.interscience.wiley.com ). DOI 10.1002/htj.20035     

An integrated study of dropwise condensation heat transfer on self-assembled organic surfaces through Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy and ellipsometry

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) formed by adsorption of 1-octadecanethiol [CH₃(CH₂)₁₇SH] and 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid [CO₂H(CH₂)₁₅SH] onto gold-coated-copper substrates were applied to investigate the enhancement of dropwise condensation (DWC) heat transfer of steam at atmosphere pressure. A durability test was also conducted. Although hydrophobic SAMs increase the heat transfer coefficient by nearly an order of magnitude from that of filmwise condensation, it was found that DWC using octadecanethiol SAM as a promoter is a dynamic process in that the heat transfer coefficient decreases with time over 2 h. These results were reconfirmed by an integrated study using Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FT-IR) and Spectroscopic Ellipsometry. We found that the monolayer of octadecanethiol becomes less crystalline with time, causing the film thickness and heat transfer coefficient to decrease. There was also some indications that, as SAMs were partly removed (leaving patches of the bare metal), contaminant from steam spontaneous adsorbed onto these high energy sites, resulting in a slightly higher heat transfer coefficient at a later stage of condensation.     

Dropwise condensation of steam on ion implanted titanium surfaces

Stable dropwise condensation of steam was achieved by ion beam implantation of N⁺ on titanium surfaces stabilized by a preoxidation procedure. It is pointed out that dropwise condensation can be adjusted by ion implantation in spite of increased wettability indicated by contact angle and surface free energy measurements. Our results suggest a nucleation mechanism possibly caused by interactions of nano-scale surface roughness and surface chemistry effects connected with precipitation of nitrides. Measured heat transfer coefficients for dropwise condensation were up to 5.5 times larger than values calculated by Nußelt film theory. No significant influence of the applied ion implantation parameters was found.     

n-Octadecanethiol self-assembled monolayer coating with microscopic roughness for dropwise condensation of steam

Here we presented a novel technology to achieve a Super-hydrophobic coating with microscopic roughness on copper surface. First, make a layer of verdigris grow on the fresh pure copper surface. Gain it by exposing the copper to air and the mist of acetic acid solution. The green coating is a mixture of basic copper(II) carbonate and copper(II) acetate. Second heat the coating and make it decompose to CuO. Lastly, form an n-octadecanethiol self-assembled monolayers coating on the outermost surface. Contact angle test, scanning electron microscope analysis and electrochemical testing were carried out to characterize the surface, and a heat transfer experiment for dropwise condensation of steam was performed also. Results show that the modified surface bears a few Super-hydrophobic features, the static contact angle is higher than that in literatures, reaching 153.1±1.7°. The microscopic roughness can be seen in SEM images, differing much from H2O2 etched surface and bare copper surface. The condensation of steam on the surface is a typical form of dropwise condensation, in the measured range of temperature difference, under 0.1 MPa, the average convection heat transfer coefficients of the vertical surface are 1.7∼2.1 times for those of film condensation. At the same time, the inhibition efficiency of surface is improved to some extent comparing with the same kind of SAMs, which suggests that the lifetime of maintenance dropwise condensation would have the possibility to surpass the existing record.     

Experimental and theoretical investigation of film condensation with noncondensable gas

Experimental and theoretical investigations were conducted for the film condensation with noncondensable gas in a vertical tube. Condensation experiments were performed for a steam–air mixture in a vertical tube submerged in a water pool where the heat from the condenser tube was removed through a boiling heat transfer. Degradation of the condensation with noncondensable gas was investigated. A heat and mass analogy model for the annular filmwise condensation with noncondensable gas was developed. In the steam–air mixture region, general momentum, heat and mass transport relations derived by analytic method were used with the consideration of surface suction effect. The predictions from the model were compared with the experimental data and the agreement was satisfactory.     

Influence of processing conditions of polymer film on dropwise condensation heat transfer

The effect of processing conditions of polymer film on dropwise condensation heat transfer of steam under atmospheric pressure is investigated to find an effective technique to prepare a viable polymer film sustaining long-term dropwise condensation pattern state. The polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) films were coated on the external surfaces of brass tubes, copper tube, stainless steel tube and carbon steel tube by means of the dynamic ion-beam mixed implantation technique, with a variety of surface processing conditions. The experimental results indicated that heat flux is increased by 0.3-4.6 times and condensation heat transfer coefficient by 1.6-28.6 times of film condensation values for the brass tubes treated with various conditions. The surface processing condition is crucial to the adhesion between polymer film and metal substrate, different substrate material requires different optimal processing condition, and leads to different condensation heat transfer characteristic.     

Effects of surface roughness and tube materials on the filmwise condensation heat transfer coefficient at low heat transfer rates

The laminar filmwise condensation heat transfer coefficient on the horizontal tubes of copper and stainless steel was investigated. The outside diameter of the tubes was 15.88 mm, and the tube thickness ranged from 1.07 to 1.6 mm. The polished stainless steel tube had an RMS surface roughness of 0.37 μm, and commercial stainless steel tubes had maximum surface roughness of 15 μm. The tests were conducted at saturation temperatures of 20 and 30 °C, and liquid wall subcoolings from 0.4 to 2.1 °C. The measured condensation heat transfer coefficients were significantly lower than the predicted data by the Nusselt analysis when the ratio of the condensate liquid film thickness to the surface roughness, δ / R_p–v, was relatively low. When the condensate liquid film was very thin, tube material affected the condensation heat transfer coefficient in the filmwise condensation.     

Measurement of contact angles under condensation conditions. The prediction of dropwise-filmwise transition

Values of contact angles for the systems benzene, carbon tetrachloride, methanol and aniline on P.T.F.E. measured under condensation conditions are presented. The results confirm the role of surface properties in controlling the mechanism of condensation on solid surfaces and with the exception of methanol the contact angles increased as predicted with decreasing pressure. The results indicate that under practical working pressures filmwise condensation of benzene and carbon tetrachloride will always take place on P.T.F.E. surfaces. The pressure at which the contact angle attained the critical value for transition from filmwise to dropwise condensation agreed with previous experimental observations on this system.     

Convection Condensation Heat Transfer of Steam-Air Mixture With Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger

A heat pipe heat exchanger (HPHE) was used to investigate the heat transfer performance of steam-air mixture condensation, analogous to the dew condensation of flue gas, when the steam volume fraction ranged from 0 to 20%, and the inlet temperature of steam-air mixture varied from 70 to 120°C. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) treatment with n-octadecyl mercaptan was adopted to modify the condensation surface of the heat pipe. The comparisons were conducted to examine the influence of SAMs on condensation heat transfer of steam-air mixture vapor. The results indicate that the convection condensation heat transfer coefficient increases with the increase of steam volume fraction and Re number of the steam-air mixture. As the inlet temperature increases, the heat transfer coefficient decreases accordingly. The heat transfer performance can be improved by the SAMs surface, with a heat transfer enhancement ratio up to 1.6 at a condition of 20% of the steam volume fraction and 1500 Re number.     

A microscopic study of dropwise condensationUne etude microscopique de la condensation en gouttesMikroskopische untersuchung der tropfenkondensationMикpocкoпиччcкoч иccлчдoвчнич кчпчльнoй кoндчнcчции

In dropwise condensation most of the heat is transferred by the active droplets whose sizes are below a certain characteristic value so that the thermal conduction resistance inside them may become negligible. In this paper the local heat transfer coefficient is determined experimentally at the very part of the condenser surface which is covered solely by the active droplets. The rate of increase in the condensate volume in a domain newly exposed by coalescence between droplets was analyzed from a high-speed high-magnification cine film record of the condenser surface. By assuming the complete coverage of the surface by droplets, the local heat transfer coefficient obtained in this way was equated to the interfacial heat transfer coefficient. As a result, the condensation coefficient of water was estimated at around 0.5.     

STABILITY REGIMES OF THIN LIQUID FILMS

The stability of thin liquid films on solid surfaces is fundamental to many phenomena such as dropwise and filmwise condensation, evaporation and boiling, as well as self-assembly of clusters and molecules. The free energy of a liquid film consists of a surface tension component as well as highly nonlinear volumetric intermolecular forces resulting from van der Waals, electrostatic, hydration, and elastic strain interactions. Athermodynamic stability analysis showed that surface tension always stabilizes a film, whereas van der Waals force with positive values of Hamaker constant (A 0) tends to destabilize. The competition between the electrostatic and surface tension stabilizing forces on one hand and van der Waals force (A 0) on the other leads to a wide variety of stability maps for different ion concentrations, which contain thickness ranges where the films are unconditionally stable. A case study of water films on glass surfaces was used to investigate the effects of short-range hydration and strain interactions as well as negative values of the Hamaker constant (A 0). The analysis showed that a water film on glass is unconditionally stable if its thickness is either less than 3 nm or more than 10 nm, and unstable in between. It is suggested that the instability at 3 nm ruptures the water film resulting in droplet formation, and is the key to dropwise condensation of water on glass. In addition, stable films thicker than 10 nm, which are formed by coalescing droplets, lead to filmwise condensation.