PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs levels in hair of residents around e-waste disassembly sites in Zhejiang Province, China, and their potential sources

This study was conducted to explore the exposure potential of Chinese residents to PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs in e-waste disassembly sites in Zhejiang province. The contents of 23 PBB congeners, 12 PBDE congeners, and 27 PCB congeners in hair and in their potential sources, including soil and e-waste, were measured via GC-MS. The levels of PHAHs in the three subfamilies (i.e., the PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs) were all considerably higher (P<0.05) in hair samples collected from the disassembly sites than from the control site. The highest levels of PBBs (57.77 ng g(-1) dw), PBDEs (29.64 ng g(-1) dw), and PCBs (181.99 ng g(-1) dw) in hair were all found in those from the disassembly site Xinqiu, which are respectively 2, 2, and 10 times more than those observed in hair from the control site Yandang. Among the three subfamilies of PHAHs, PCBs were the most predominant pollutants detected. PBBs, which have very limited information available in China, can be detected at a comparable level with PBDEs in these samples in the study. Therefore, these observations suggested that more attention should be given over the potential for environmental or occupational exposure to PHAHs present in e-waste. By and large, the PHAH levels measured in the hair samples were consistent with those detected in the soil. Hair analysis could thus be a valid screening tool for assessing human PHAHs exposure in and around e-waste disassembly sites.     

PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs in foods collected from e-waste disassembly sites and daily intake by local residents

This study was conducted to estimate the total daily dietary intakes (TDIs) of three PHAHs subfamilies for residents living around the large e-waste disassembly sites in the Zhejiang province of China. A total of 191 food samples (including seven food groups and drinking water) were obtained from the disassembly sites and the control site in April, 2007. The levels of three PHAHs were measured by GC-MS. The estimated TDIs of PBBs (385.5 ng day^− 1), PBDEs (195.9 ng day^− 1), and PCBs (12,372.9 ng day^− 1) in the disassembly sites were approximately 2-3 times higher than those in the control site, which suggested that these PHAHs from e-waste might have entered into the food chain. Rice appeared to be the food group showing the highest contribution to the individual dietary intakes of these PHAHs. The estimated TDIs were also compared with those results reported recently in the literature and their respective reference doses by WHO (or Health Canada). By and large, although the estimated TDIs for the PHAHs under study were lower than their respective reference doses, they were obviously higher than those observed in other places listed in the literature, thus suggesting that residents living around the disassembly sites have been exposed to higher levels of PHAHs than those places, and might thus be at greater health risk.     

Accumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticide in pet cats and dogs: Assessment of toxicological status

PCB and DDT concentrations were determined in the adipose tissue of cats and dogs from Southern Italy. In cats p,p′-DDE was the most abundant DDT component (95.0%), while in dogs these compounds were absent, except in two specimens. PCB concentrations were higher in cats (199.02 ng g^− 1 lipid weight) than in dogs (41.61 ng g^− 1 lipid weight). Also there were inter-specific differences in the contribution of the different congeners to PCBs, although PCB 138, PCB 153 and PCB 180 were the most representative congeners in both species. Animals from one location, Taranto City, had significantly elevated concentrations of dioxin-like PCBs compared to the other locations. Consequently the estimated mean 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin toxic equivalents (TEQs) of coplanar PCBs were higher in these animals (cats: 0.65 pg g^− 1 lipid weight; dogs 0.29 pg g^− 1 lipid weight) than in the other ones (cats: 0.12 pg g^− 1 lipid weight; dogs: 0.001 pg g^− 1 lipid weight).     

Accumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls and brominated flame retardants in breast milk from women living in Vietnamese e-waste recycling sites

This study investigated the contamination status of PCBs, PBDEs and HBCDs in human and possible exposure pathways in three Vietnamese e-waste recycling sites: Trang Minh (suburb of Hai Phong city), Dong Mai and Bui Dau (Hung Yen province), and one reference site (capital city Hanoi) by analysing human breast milk samples and examining the relationships between contaminant levels and lifestyle factors. Levels of PBDEs, but not PCBs and HBCDs, were significantly higher in Trang Minh and Bui Dau than in the reference site. The recyclers from Bui Dau had the highest levels of PBDEs (20-250 ng g^− 1 lipid wt.), higher than in the reference group by two orders of magnitude and more abundant than PCBs (28-59 ng g^− 1 lipid wt.), and were also the only group with significant exposure to HBCDs (1.4-7.6 ng g^− 1 lipid wt.). A specific accumulation, unrelated to diet, of low-chlorinated PCBs and high-brominated PBDEs was observed in e-waste recyclers, suggesting extensive exposure to these compounds during e-waste recycling activities, possibly through inhalation and ingestion of dust. The estimated infant intake dose of PBDEs from breast milk of some mothers occupationally involved in e-waste recycling were close to or higher than the reference doses issued by the U.S. EPA.     

Persistent organic pollutants in fish tissue in the mid-continental great rivers of the United States

Great rivers of the central United States (Upper Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers) are valuable economic and cultural resources, yet until recently their ecological condition has not been well quantified. In 2004-2005, as part of the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program for Great River Ecosystems (EMAP-GRE), we measured legacy organochlorines (OCs) (pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs) and emerging compounds (polybrominated diphenyl ethers, PBDEs) in whole fish to estimate human and wildlife exposure risks from fish consumption. PCBs, PBDEs, chlordane, dieldrin and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) were detected in most samples across all rivers, and hexachlorobenzene was detected in most Ohio River samples. Concentrations were highest in the Ohio River, followed by the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, respectively. Dieldrin and PCBs posed the greatest risk to humans. Their concentrations exceeded human screening values for cancer risk in 27-54% and 16-98% of river km, respectively. Chlordane exceeded wildlife risk values for kingfisher in 11-96% of river km. PBDE concentrations were highest in large fish in the Missouri and Ohio Rivers (mean > 1000 ng g^− 1 lipid), with congener 47 most prevalent. OC and PBDE concentrations were positively related to fish size, lipid content, trophic guild, and proximity to urban areas. Contamination of fishes by OCs is widespread among great rivers, although exposure risks appear to be more localized and limited in scope. As an indicator of ecological condition, fish tissue contamination contributes to the overall assessment of great river ecosystems in the U.S.     

Bioaccumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecane in the northwest Atlantic marine food web

Seven species of teleost fishes comprising major prey of northwest Atlantic harbor seals were analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). PBDE concentrations in whole fish samples (n = 87) were compared with those measured previously in harbor seal blubber to evaluate the transfer of PBDEs from prey to predator. Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) concentrations were measured in three fish species to provide an initial estimation of HBCD contamination in this ecosystem. HBCD was detected in 87% of the fish samples at concentrations ranging from 2.4 to 38.1 ng/g, lw (overall mean 17.2 ± 10.2 ng/g, lw). ∑PBDE concentrations in fish ranged from 17.9 to 94 ng/g, lw (overall mean 62 ± 34 ng/g, lw). ∑PBDE concentrations in the harbor seals were two orders of magnitude higher than levels in the fish. Biomagnification factors (BMFs) from fish to seals averaged from 17 to 76, indicating that tetra- to hexa-BDEs are highly biomagnified in this marine food web. BDE-47 was the dominant congener in all samples, suggesting exposure to the penta-BDE mixture. The presence of higher brominated congeners including BDE-209 at measurable levels in fish and seal tissue, along with the very high biomagnification of BDE-153, as well as − 155, and − 154, suggests recent exposure to the octa- and deca-BDE formulations in this US coastal marine food web, as well as the additional contribution of BDE-209 debromination in fish to the loading of persistent PBDEs in the seals. This is the first study to report the occurrence of BDE-209 and other higher BDEs in commercially important marine fishes from the northwest Atlantic.     

Contaminant blubber burdens in Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) from two southeastern US estuarine areas: Concentrations and patterns of PCBs, pesticides, PBDEs, PFCs, and PAHs

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), chlorinated pesticides (i.e., dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites, chlordanes (CHLs), dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and mirex), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs), and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in blubber biopsy samples collected from 139 wild bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) during 2003-2005 in Charleston (CHS), SC and the Indian River Lagoon (IRL), FL. Dolphins accumulated a similar suite of contaminants with ∑ PCB dominating (CHS 64%, IRL 72%), followed by ∑ DDT (CHS 20%, IRL 17%), ∑ CHLs (CHS 7%; IRL 7%), ∑ PBDE (CHS 4%, IRL 2%), PAH at 2%, and dieldrin, PFCs and mirex each 1% or less. Together ∑ PCB and ∑ DDT concentrations contributed ∼ 87% of the total POCs measured in blubber of adult males. ∑ PCBs in adult male dolphins exceed the established PCB threshold of 17 mg/kg by a 5-fold order of magnitude with a 15-fold increase for many animals; 88% of the dolphins exceed this threshold. For male dolphins, CHS (93,980 ng/g lipid) had a higher ∑ PCBs geomean compared to the IRL (79,752 ng/g lipid) although not statistically different. In adult males, the PBDE geometric mean concentration was significantly higher in CHS (5920 ng/g lipid) than the IRL (1487 ng/g). Blubber ∑ PFCs concentrations were significantly higher in CHS dolphins. In addition to differences in concentration of PCB congeners, ∑ PBDE, TEQ, ∑ CHLs, mirex, dieldrin, and the ratios ∑ DDE/∑DDT and trans-nonachlor/cis-nonachlor were the most informative for discriminating contaminant loads in these two dolphin populations. Collectively, the current ∑ PCB, ∑ DDT, and ∑ PBDEs blubber concentrations found in CHS dolphins are among the highest reported values in marine mammals. Both dolphin populations, particularly those in CHS, carry a suite of organic chemicals at or above the level where adverse effects have been reported in wildlife, humans, and laboratory animals warranting further examination of the potential adverse effects of these exposures.     

Levels of brominated flame retardants and other pesistent organic pollutants in breast milk samples from Limpopo Province, South Africa

The non-occupational exposure to brominated flame retardants, and other persistent organic pollutants (POPs) was studied by collecting human breast milk samples from mothers residing in Thohoyandou area, a rural district in the Limpopo Province, northern part of South Africa (SA). Of all collected samples to be analysed (n = 28), those with large enough milk volumes, (n = 14) were quantified for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (9 congeners: BDE-28, 47, 66, 99, 100, 138, 153, 154, and 183) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) on a GC equipped with dual capillary columns and dual electron-capture detectors (ECD). The levels of PBDE congeners (median sumBDE 1.3 ng/g of lipids) and of HBCD were not far from levels generally found in European studies, and this study may be the first report on the presence of PBDEs and HBCD in SA breast milk. On a congener basis, the finding of comparably high BDE-183 levels suggests a specific PBDE usage, or contamination situation in SA. Apart from BFRs, the high DDT levels found in the breast milk from this area (median and maximum sumDDT levels of about 4 600 and over 20 000 ng/g of lipids, respectively; n = 28) have earlier been reported. In addition, other POPs (PCBs, HCB and HCHs) were found in SA breast milk, at relatively low levels. To conclude, measurable levels of PBDEs and HBCD, and a specific BDE congener pattern, were found in breast milk from the Limpopo province, SA. A number of other POPs, including DDTs in high levels, were also present.     

Investigating the distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers through an Australian wastewater treatment plant

The aim of this study was to quantify the amount of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) released into the environment (biosolids, effluent) from a conventional Australian activated sludge treatment wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). The concentration of PBDE congeners was measured at various treatment stages and included four aqueous samples (raw, primary, secondary and tertiary effluents) and three sludges (primary, secondary and lime stabilized biosolids), collected at three sampling events over the course of the experiment (29 days). Semi-permeable membrane devices (SPMDs) were also installed for the duration of the experiment, the first time that SPMDs have been used to measure PBDEs in a WWTP. Over 99% of the PBDEs entering the WWTP were removed through the treatment processes, principally by sedimentation. The main congeners detected were BDE 47, 99 and 209, which are characteristic of the two major commercial formulations viz penta-BDE and deca-BDE. All the PBDE congeners measured were highly correlated with each other, suggesting a similar origin. In this case, the PBDEs are thought to be from domestic sources since domestic wastewater is the main contribution to the in-flow (∼ 95%). The mean concentration of ΣPBDEs in chemically stabilized sewage sludge (biosolids) was 300 μg kg^− 1 dry weight. It is calculated that 2.3 ± 0.3 kg of PBDEs are disposed of each year with biosolids generated from the WWTP. If all Australian sewage sludge is contaminated to at least this concentration then at least 110 kg of PBDEs are associated with Australian sewage sludge annually. Less than 10 g are released annually into the environment via ocean outfall and field irrigation; this level of contamination is unlikely to pose risk to humans or the environment. The environmental release of treated effluent and biosolids is not considered a large source of PBDE environmental emissions compared to the quantities used annually in Australia.     

The role of diet on long-term concentration and pattern trends of brominated and chlorinated contaminants in western Hudson Bay polar bears, 1991-2007

Adipose tissue was sampled from the western Hudson Bay (WHB) subpopulation of polar bears at intervals from 1991 to 2007 to examine temporal trends of PCB and OCP levels both on an individual and sum-(∑-)contaminant basis. We also determined levels and temporal trends of emerging polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) and other current-use brominated flame retardants. Over the 17-year period, ∑ DDT (and p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, p,p′-DDT) decreased (−8.4%/year); α-hexachlorocyclohexane (α-HCH) decreased (−11%/year); β-HCH increased (+ 8.3%/year); and ∑ PCB and ∑ chlordane (CHL), both contaminants at highest concentrations in all years (> 1 ppm), showed no distinct trends even when compared to previous data for this subpopulation dating back to 1968. Some of the less persistent PCB congeners decreased significantly (−1.6%/year to −6.3%/year), whereas CB153 levels tended to increase (+ 3.3%/year). Parent CHLs (c-nonachlor, t-nonachlor) declined, whereas non-monotonic trends were detected for metabolites (heptachlor epoxide, oxychlordane). ∑ chlorobenzene, octachlorostyrene, ∑ mirex, ∑ MeSO₂-PCB and dieldrin did not significantly change. Increasing ∑ PBDE levels (+ 13%/year) matched increases in the four consistently detected congeners, BDE47, BDE99, BDE100 and BDE153. Although no trend was observed, total-(α)-HBCD was only detected post-2000. Levels of the highest concentration brominated contaminant, BB153, showed no temporal change. As long-term ecosystem changes affecting contaminant levels may also affect contaminant patterns, we examined the influence of year (i.e., aging or “weathering” of the contaminant pattern), dietary tracers (carbon stable isotope ratios, fatty acid patterns) and biological (age/sex) group on congener/metabolite profiles. Patterns of PCBs, CHLs and PBDEs were correlated with dietary tracers and biological group, but only PCB and CHL patterns were correlated with year. DDT patterns were not associated with any explanatory variables, possibly related to local DDT sources. Contaminant pattern trends may be useful in distinguishing the possible role of ecological/diet changes on contaminant burdens from expected dynamics due to atmospheric sources and weathering.     

Classic and novel brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in common sole (Solea solea L.) from main nursery zones along the French coasts

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) were investigated in juvenile common sole from nursery zones situated along the French coast in 2007, 2008 and 2009. Extensive identification was performed with regard to PBDEs, novel BFRs 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE) and decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), and other non-PBDE BFRs, namely, hexabromobenzene (HBB) and 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexabromobiphenyl (BB-153). Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) concentrations (Σ 14 congeners) ranged from 0.01 ng/g to 0.16 ng/g wet weight (ww) in muscle, and 0.07 ng/g to 2.8 ng/g ww in liver. Concentrations were in the lower range of those reported in the literature in other European locations. Lower PBDE concentrations, condition indices and lipid contents were observed in the Seine estuary in 2009, possibly in relation to a lower water flow. The PBDE patterns and ratios we observed suggested that juvenile sole have a relative high metabolic degradation capacity. Non-PBDE BFRs were detected at lower levels than PBDEs, i.e., within the < method detection limit - 0.005 ng/g ww range in muscle, and < method detection limit - 0.2 ng/g ww range in liver. The data obtained is of particular interest for the future monitoring of these compounds in the environment.     

Brominated flame retardants in Belgian home-produced eggs: levels and contamination sources

The extent and the sources of contamination with brominated flame retardants (BFRs), such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), in home-produced eggs from free-foraging chicken of Belgian private owners were investigated. Various factors, such as seasonal variability, exposure of chickens through diet (kitchen waste) and soil, and elimination of BFRs through eggs and faeces were assessed. PBDEs were more important than HBCD in terms of concentrations and detection frequency. Concentrations of PBDEs and HBCD in Belgian home-produced eggs were relatively low and comparable with reported levels from other European countries and the US. The concentrations of PBDEs (sum of 13 congeners, including BDE 209) ranged between not detected and 32 ng/g lipid weight (lw), with medians of 3.0 and < 2.0 ng/g lw for the autumn 2006 and spring 2007 campaigns, respectively. When present, BDE 209 was the major PBDE congener (45% of sum PBDEs). When BDE 209 was not detected, the PBDE profile was composed of PentaBDE (BDE 99 and BDE 47), with, in some cases, higher contribution of OctaBDE (BDE 183 and BDE 153). HBCD was also detected (< 0.4 and 2.9 ng/g lw for the autumn 2006 and spring 2007 campaigns, respectively), but at lower detection frequency. The highest HBCD value was 62 ng/g lw. The similarity between profiles and seasonal variations in the concentrations of BFRs in soil and eggs indicate that soil is an important source, but not the sole source, for eggs laid by free-foraging chicken. The contamination of eggs with PBDEs and HBCD appears to be of low concern for public health and the contribution of eggs to the total daily intake of PBDEs appears to be limited (10% for chicken owners and 5% for the average Belgian consumer).     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, perfluorinated alkylated substances, and metals in tile drainage and groundwater following applications of municipal biosolids to agricultural fields

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAS), and metals were monitored in tile drainage and groundwater following liquid (LMB) and dewatered municipal biosolid (DMB) applications to silty-clay loam agricultural field plots. LMB was applied (93,500 L ha^− 1) in late fall 2005 via surface spreading on un-tilled soil (SS_LMB), and a one-pass aerator-based pre-tillage prior to surface spreading (AerWay SSD) (A). The DMB was applied (8 Mg dw ha^− 1) in early summer 2006 on the same plots by injecting DMB beneath the soil surface (DI), and surface spreading on un-tilled soil (SS_DMB). Key PBDE congeners (BDE-47, -99, -100, -153, -154, -183, -209) comprising 97% of total PBDE in LMB, had maximum tile effluent concentrations ranging from 6 to 320 ng L^− 1 during application-induced tile flow. SS_LMB application-induced tile mass loads for these PBDE congeners were significantly higher than those for control (C) plots (no LMB) (p < 0.05), but not A plots (p > 0.05). PBDE mass loss via tile (0-2 h post-application) as a percent of mass applied was ~ 0.04-0.1% and ~ 0.8-1.7% for A and SS_LMB, respectively. Total PBDE loading to soil via LMB and DMB application was 0.0018 and 0.02 kg total PBDE ha^− 1 yr^− 1, respectively. Total PBDE concentration in soil (0-0.2 m) after both applications was 115 ng g^− 1 dw, (sampled 599 days and 340 days post LMB and DMB applications respectively). Of all the PFAS compounds, only PFOS (max concentration = 17 ng L^− 1) and PFOA (12 ng L^− 1) were found above detectable limits in tile drainage from the application plots. Mass loads of metals in tile for the LMB application-induced tile hydrograph event, and post-application concentrations of metals in groundwater, showed significant (p < 0.05) land application treatment effects (SS_LMB > A > C for tile and SS_LMB and A > C for groundwater for most results). Following DMB application, no significant differences in metal mass loads in tile were found between SS_DMB and DI treatments (PBDE/PFAS were not measured). But for many metals (Cu, Se, Cd, Mo, Hg and Pb) both SS_DMB and DI loads were significantly higher than those from C, but only during < 100 days post DMB application. Clearly, pre-tilling the soil (e.g., A) prior to surface application of LMB will reduce application-based PBDE and metal contamination to tile drainage and shallow groundwater. Directly injecting DMB in soil does not significantly increase metal loading to tile drains relative to SS_DMB, thus, DI should be considered a DMB land application option.     

Geography and stage of development affect persistent organic pollutants in stranded and wild-caught harbor seal pups from central California

Persistent organic pollutants have been associated with disease susceptibility and decreased immunity in marine mammals. Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), chlordanes (CHLDs), and hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs) were evaluated in terms of stage of development and likely exposure routes (in utero, suckling, fasting) in the blubber of 202 stranded and wild-caught, primarily young of the year (n = 177), harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) in the central California coast. This is the first report of HCH concentrations in the blubber of California seals. Lipid normalized concentrations ranged from 200 to 330,000 ng/g for sum PCBs, 320-1,500,000 ng/g for sum DDTs, 23-63,000 ng/g for sum PBDEs, 29-29,000 ng/g for sum CHLDs, and 2-780 ng/g for sum HCHs. The highest concentrations were observed in harbor seal pups that suckled in the wild and then lost mass during the post-weaning fast. Among the pups sampled in the wild and those released from rehabilitation, there were no differences in mass, blubber depth, or percent lipid although contaminant concentrations were significantly higher in the pups which nursed in the wild. When geographic differences were evaluated in a subset of newborn animals collected near their birth locations, the ratio of sum DDTs to sum PCBs was significantly greater in samples from an area with agricultural inputs (Monterey), than one with industrial inputs (San Francisco Bay). A principal components analysis distinguished between seals from San Francisco Bay and Monterey Bay based on specific PCB and PBDE congeners and DDT metabolites. These data illustrate the important influence of life stage, nutritional status, and location on blubber contaminant levels, and thus the need to consider these factors when interpreting single sample measurements in marine mammals.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sewage sludge and treated biosolids: Effect factors and mass balance

Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants have been consistently detected in sewage sludge and treated biosolids. Two hundred and eighty-eight samples including primary sludge (PS), waste biological sludge (WBS) and treated biosolids from fifteen wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Canada were analyzed to investigate the factors affecting accumulation of PBDEs in sludge and biosolids. Factors examined included environmental/sewershed conditions and operational parameters of the WWTPs. PBDE concentrations in PS, WBS and treated biosolids were 230–82,000 ng/g, 530–8800 ng/g and 420–6000 ng/g, respectively; BDE-209,-99, and -47 were the predominant congeners. Concentrations were influenced by industrial input, leachate, and temperature. Several examinations including the measurement of BDE-202 indicated minimal debromination during wastewater treatment. Estimated solids-liquid distribution coefficients were moderately correlated to hydraulic retention time, solids loading rate, mixed liquor suspended solids, solids retention time, and removal of organic solids, indicating that PBDE partitioning to solids can be optimized by WWTPs' operational conditions. Solids treatment type strongly affected PBDE levels in biosolids: 1.5 times increase after solids digestion, therefore, digestion efficiency could be a potential factor for variability of PBDEs concentration. In contrast, alkaline treatment reduced PBDE concentrations in biosolids. Overall, mass balance approaches confirmed that PBDEs were removed from the liquid stream through partitioning to solids. Variability of PBDE levels in biosolids could result in different PBDEs burdens to agricultural land, and different exposure levels to soil organisms.     

Bioaccumulation behaviour of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in a Canadian Arctic marine food web

A comparative analysis of the bioaccumulation behaviour of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) was conducted involving simultaneous measurements of PBDE and PCB concentrations in organisms of a Canadian Arctic marine food web. Concentrations of individual PBDE congeners (BDE-28, -47, -99, -153, -154 and -183) in Arctic marine sediments (0.001-0.5 ng.g(-1) dry wt) and biota (0.1-30 ng.g(-1) wet wt) were low compared to those concentrations in biota from urbanized/industrial regions. While recalcitrant PCB congeners exhibited a high degree of biomagnification in this food web, PBDE congeners exhibited negligible biomagnification. Trophic magnification factors (TMFs) of PCBs ranged between 2.9 and 11, while TMFs of PBDEs ranged between 0.7 and 1.6. TMFs of several PBDE congeners (BDE-28, -66, -99, -100, -118, -153 and -154) were not statistically greater than 1, indicating a lack of food web magnification. BDE-47 was the only PBDE with a TMF (i.e. 1.6) statistically greater than 1, hence showing evidence of biomagnification in the food web. However, the TMF of BDE-47 (1.6) was substantially lower than TMFs of recalcitrant Cl(5)-Cl(7) PCBs (TMFs~9-11). Species-specific bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) of PBDEs in homeotherms were much smaller than those for PCBs. This further indicates the low degree or absence of biomagnification of PBDEs compared to PCBs in this food web. The field observations suggest PBDEs exhibit a relatively rapid rate of depuration though biotransformation in Arctic marine organisms, which is consistent with laboratory studies in fish and rats.     

Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated biphenyls in human blood samples from Korea

Analysis of blood samples is an effective way of evaluating contamination by persistent pollutants such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/furans (PCDD/Fs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in human population. Concentrations of PBDEs, PCDD/Fs and PCBs were measured in the blood of laborers (n = 13) working full time in two different municipal waste incinerator (MWI) plants and residents from the general population (n = 22) living in areas near MWIs in Korea. The concentrations of PBDEs were found to be slightly higher in the blood of incineration workers (8.61-46.05 ng/g lipid; mean, 19.33 ng/g lipid; median, 15.94 ng/g lipid) in comparison to that of residents from the general population (7.24-28.89 ng/g lipid; mean, 15.06 ng/g lipid; median, 14.34 ng/g lipid). The total average PCDD/Fs and PCB TEQ concentration was 20.11 pg/g lipid, averaged over incineration workers (17.73 pg/g lipid) and the general population (21.52 pg/g lipid). In addition, the average total crude concentration of PCDD/Fs was 7.40 ng/g lipids, which was 4.1 times greater than for PBDEs. Congener specific analysis confirmed that BDE 47 was a predictive indicator for total PBDE concentration (correlation coefficient r = 0.912), and that PCB 153 was a predictive indicator for total PCB concentration (r = 0.967). The PBDE levels in human blood in Korea are much higher than those reported in other countries. The presence of the BDE 183 congener was characteristic in the blood of workers from an electronic dismantling facility in MWIs.     

Levels of brominated flame retardants and methoxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers in eggs of white-tailed sea eagles breeding in different regions of Sweden

Forty-four unhatched eggs from white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), collected in four regions in Sweden in 1992-2005, were analysed for contents of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polybrominated biphenyl (PBB), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and naturally occurring methoxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (MeO-PBDEs). Two freshwater areas—Lapland in the arctic zone (LAP) and inland lakes in central and southern Sweden (INL), and two brackish marine areas in the Baltic Sea—the south Bothnian Sea (SB) and the Baltic Proper (BP)—were chosen for comparison of the concentrations and congener distributions in white-tailed sea eagles with different diet and migratory patterns. The geometric mean (GM) concentrations (ng/g lipid weight (l.w.)) of ∑₅PBDE (BDE-47, -99, -100, -153, and -154) were 720 (LAP), 1500 (INL), 4 100 (SB) and 4 300 (BP), whereas BDE-209 was not detectable in any of the samples. The GM concentrations for HBCD content in LAP, INL, SB and BP were 60, 90, 150 and 140 ng/g l.w., respectively, whereas the corresponding values for BB-153 were 20, 30, 100 and 120 ng/g l.w. In general, the eggs from all four regions demonstrated similar patterns of PBDE congeners, with concentrations in descending order of BDE-47, -100, -99, -153 and -154. The ∑₃-MeO-BDEs (6-MeO-BDE47, 2′-MeO-BDE68, 5-Cl-6-MeO-BDE47) for these same regions (as above) were 80, 40, 340 and 240 ng/g l.w., respectively. ∑₃-MeO-BDEs for LAP and INL (freshwaters) were significantly different, whereas those for SB and BP were not. The presence of MeO-PBDEs in all of the inland samples indicates that there is an as-yet-unidentified source of these compounds in the freshwater ecosystem. Between the two more contaminated subpopulations from the Baltic Sea coast, SB showed significantly lower productivity than BP, but no correlation was found between productivity and PBDE, PBB and HBCD at the concentrations found in this study.     

Seasonality of diffusive exchange of polychlorinated biphenyls and hexachlorobenzene across the air-sea interface of Kaohsiung Harbor, Taiwan

Gaseous and dissolved concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) were measured in the ambient air and water of Kaohsiung Harbor lagoon, Taiwan, from December 2003 to January 2005. During the rainy season (April to September), gaseous PCB and HCB concentrations were low due to both scavenging by precipitation and dilution by prevailing southwesterly winds blown from the atmosphere of the South China Sea. In contrast, trace precipitation and prevailing northeasterly winds during the dry season (October to March) resulted in higher gaseous PCB and HCB concentrations. Instantaneous air-water exchange fluxes of PCB homologues and HCB were calculated from 22 pairs of air and water samples from Kaohsiung Harbor lagoon. All net fluxes of PCB homologues and HCB in this study are from water to air (net volatilization). The highest net volatile flux observed was + 172 ng m^− 2 day^− 1 (dichlorobiphenyls) in December, 2003 due to the high wind speed and high dissolved concentration. The PCB homologues and HCB fluxes were significantly governed by dissolved concentrations in Kaohsiung Harbor lagoon. For low molecular weight PCBs (LMW PCBs), their fluxes were also significantly correlated with wind speed. The net PCB and HCB fluxes suggest that the annual sums of 69 PCBs and HCB measured in this study were mainly volatile (57.4 × 10³ and 28.3 × 10³ ng m^− 2 yr^− 1, respectively) and estimated yearly, 1.5 kg and 0.76 kg of PCBs and HCB were emitted from the harbor lagoon surface waters to the ambient atmosphere. The average tPCB flux in this study was about one-tenth of tPCB fluxes seen in New York Harbor and in the Delaware River, which are reported to be greatly impacted by PCBs.     

Simultaneous determination of microcystin contaminations in various vertebrates (fish, turtle, duck and water bird) from a large eutrophic Chinese lake, Lake Taihu, with toxic Microcystis blooms

This is the first to conduct simultaneous determination of microcystin (MC) contaminations in multi-groups of vertebrates (fish, turtle, duck and water bird) from Lake Taihu with Microcystis blooms. MCs (-RR, -YR, -LR) in Microcystis scum was 328 μg g^− 1 DW. MCs reached 235 μg g^− 1 DW in intestinal contents of phytoplanktivorous silver carp, but never exceeded 0.1 μg g^− 1 DW in intestinal contents of other animals. The highest MC content in liver of fish was in Carassius auratus (150 ng g^− 1 DW), followed by silver carp and Culter ilishaeformis, whereas the lowest was in common carp (3 ng g^− 1 DW). In livers of turtle, duck and water bird, MC content ranged from 18 to 30 ng g^− 1 DW. High MC level was found in the gonad, egg yolk and egg white of Nycticorax nycticorax and Anas platyrhynchos, suggesting the potential effect of MCs on water bird and duck embryos. High MC contents were identified for the first time in the spleens of N. nycticorax and A. platyrhynchos (6.850 and 9.462 ng g^− 1 DW, respectively), indicating a different organotropism of MCs in birds. Lakes with deaths of turtles or water birds in the literatures had a considerably higher MC content in both cyanobacteria and wildlife than Lake Taihu, indicating that toxicity of cyanobacteria may determine accumulation level of MCs and consequently fates of aquatic wildlife.