Using multi-criteria analysis to explore non-market monetary values of water quality changes in the context of the Water Framework Directive

The EU Water Framework Directive represents a major change in the management of water resources and sets ambitious ecological objectives for all European waters. In the Directive, the economic assessment of the non-market environmental benefits of water quality improvements plays a crucial role. Studies valuing these benefits are now appearing in the literature, applying stated preference valuation techniques. However, these techniques are often criticized for providing only narrow mono-criterion information to the decision-making process. The research presented here builds on a recent line of investigation that combines monetary stated preference tools, in this case a choice experiment, with multi-criteria analysis, in this case the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). We argue that the AHP can contribute to a better understanding and interpretation of the choice experiment results by exploring the criteria involved in respondents' trade-off between the attributes. The AHP provides relevant insights for the application of use-based water quality ladders in the valuation of environmental benefits in the context of the WFD. Results also show the importance of the spatial dimension of preferences for water quality.     

Establishing physico-chemical reference conditions in Mediterranean streams according to the European Water Framework Directive

Type-specific physico-chemical reference conditions are required for the assessment of ecological status in the Water Framework Directive context, similarly to the biological and hydro-morphological elements. This directive emphasises that natural variability of quality elements in high status (reference condition) needs to be quantified. Mediterranean streams often present a marked seasonal pattern in hydrological, biological and geochemical processes which could affect physico-chemical reference conditions. This study establishes general physico-chemical reference conditions (oxygenation, nutrient, salinity and acidification conditions) for different Mediterranean stream types. 116 potential reference sites located in 23 Mediterranean catchments in Spain were sampled in spring, summer and autumn in 2003. All sites were subjected to a screening method for the selection of reference sites in Mediterranean streams (Mediterranean Reference Criteria) and classified using a pre-established stream typology that establishes five different stream types (temporary streams, evaporite-calcareous at medium altitude, siliceous headwaters, calcareous headwaters and large watercourses). Reference conditions (reference value and reference threshold equivalents to high-good class boundary) were calculated using two different methods according to the availability of reference sites: the reference site 75th percentile approach of all reference sites and the 25th percentile of the population approach. The majority of the studied potential reference sites (76 out of 116) were selected as reference sites. Regarding type-specific reference conditions, only siliceous headwaters could be considered different from the rest of stream types because lower conductivity and pH. All reference stream types presented seasonal differences as regards some parameters, except for temporary streams due to the high natural variation of this stream type. For those parameters which presented seasonal differences in a specific stream type, the least restrictive values were proposed as reference conditions.     

Challenges to the Implementation of the Water Framework Directive in Scotland: A Personal View

The Water Framework Directive was implemented in December 2000 and has to be transposed into Scottish legislation by 2003. The Directive provides a major opportunity to enhance the water environment of Scotland and to improve its management through the implementation of river-basin management planning with stakeholder and public engagement and the delivery of a programme of environmental-improvement measures to deliver good ecological status. Whilst the Directive provides unparalleled opportunities, there are significant challenges to its successful implementation in Scotland, where a step-change in managing the water environment will be required. This paper explores some of the challenges which include technical aspects, scale and timing issues, and capacity limitations.     

Implementing the requirements of the Water Framework Directive for rural water supply schemes in Scotland

In a project pioneering the implementation of the European Union Water Framework Directive in Scotland, a programme of local stream flow gauging in Lochaber demonstrated that low flow yields in the sources were greater than predicted by standard methodologies for ungauged catchments in the UK. This meant that the abstraction required for the water treatment works represented an acceptable proportion of the yield, and complied with Scottish Environment Protection Agency guidance for maintaining good ecological status in the catchments. Development of new sources with dams, pumping stations and pipelines was avoided, thus reducing costs and environmental impacts. A programme of stakeholder consultations was carried out throughout the Water Order application process and agreement on proposed abstractions was reached with over 20 stakeholders.     

Water quality, nutrients and the European union's Water Framework Directive in a lowland agricultural region: Suffolk, south-east England

The water quality of 13 rivers in the lowland, agricultural county of Suffolk is investigated using routine monitoring data for the period 1981 to 2006 collected by the Environment Agency of England and Wales (EA), and its predecessors, with particular emphasis on phosphorus (as total reactive phosphorus, TRP) and total (dissolved and particulate) oxidised nitrogen (TOxN — predominantly nitrate NO₃). Major ion and flow data are used to outline fundamental hydrochemical characteristics related to the groundwater provenance of base-flow waters. Relative load contributions from point and diffuse sources are approximated using Load Apportionment Modelling for both TRP and TOxN where concurrent flow and concentration data are available. Analyses indicate a mixture of point and diffuse sources of TRP, with the former being dominant during low flow periods, while for TOxN diffuse sources dominate.Out of 59 sites considered, 53 (90%) were found to have annual average TRP concentrations greater than 0.05 mg P l^− 1, and 36 (61%) had average concentrations over 0.120 mg P l^− 1, the upper thresholds for ‘High’ and ‘Good’ ecological status, respectively. Correspondingly, for TOxN, most of the rivers are already within 70% of the 11.3 mg N l^− 1 threshold, with two rivers (Wang and Ore) being consistently greater than this.It is suggested that the major challenge is to characterise and control point-source TRP inputs which, being predominant during the late spring and summer low-flow period, coincide with the peak of primary biological production, thus presenting the major challenge to achieving ‘good’ ecological status under the Water Framework Directive. Results show that considerable effort is still required to ensure appropriate management and develop tools for decision-support.     

Assessing remotely sensed chlorophyll-a for the implementation of the Water Framework Directive in European perialpine lakes

The lakes of the European perialpine region constitute a large water reservoir, which is threatened by the anthropogenic pressure altering water quality. The Water Framework Directive of the European Commission aims to protect water resources and monitoring is seen as an essential step for achieving this goal. Remote sensing can provide frequent data for large scale studies of water quality parameters such as chlorophyll-a (chl-a). In this work we use a dataset of maps of chl-a derived from over 200 MERIS (MEdium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) satellite images for comparing water quality of 12 perialpine lakes in the period 2003-2009. Besides the different trophic levels of the lakes, results confirm that the seasonal variability of chl-a concentration is particularly pronounced during spring and autumn especially for the more eutrophic lakes. We show that relying on only one sample for the assessment of lake water quality during the season might lead to misleading results and erroneous assignments to quality classes. Time series MERIS data represents a suitable and cost-effective technology to fill this gap, depicting the dynamics of the surface waters of lakes in agreement with the evolution of natural phenomena.     

Stakeholder involvement and public participation: a critique of Water Framework Directive arrangements in the United Kingdom

Expert consensus regarding public consultation and participation on environmental matters favours a multilevel approach: the process is much more likely to succeed when those consulted can relate to the boundaries, scale and the local nature of the issues. The Water Framework Directive requires those with the responsibility for river basin management planning to engage with stakeholders and the general public when such plans are being developed. Examination of the arrangements for public participation in the regions of the United Kingdom shows a marked variation in the interpretation of the Directive that may leave the general public residing in England and Wales at a significant disadvantage. In both Scotland and Northern Ireland involvement by the general public is planned at a much more local level through groups established specifically for that purpose. Arrangements at local level in England and Wales are focused on narrower existing liaison arrangements in place before the implementation of the Directive.     

Maximum likelihood mixture estimation to determine metal background values in estuarine and coastal sediments within the European Water Framework Directive

Some of the recently derived European Directives, such as the Water Framework and Marine Strategy, have, as ultimate aims, to achieve concentrations of hazardous substances in the marine environment near background values. Hence, the determination of natural background levels, in marine sediments, is highly relevant. The present study proposes the use of the maximum likelihood mixture estimation (MLME) to determine regional background levels and upper threshold of metal concentration, with the Basque Country as a case study (with a data set of 575 samples, from estuarine and littoral areas, including both intertidal and subtidal sediments). The heuristic procedure is applied with unimodal data distributions (Cd, Cr, Fe and Ni) and the mixture density estimations, based upon maximum likelihood, are carried out with polypopulational data distributions (As, Cu, Mn, Hg, Pb and Zn). The upper limits of the distribution are proposed, as the limits between 'High Status' and 'Good Status' (according to the Water Framework Directive terminology). The regional upper limits were 0.45 microg g(-1) for Cd, 71 microg g(-1) for Cr, 53,542 microg g(-1) for Fe, 57 microg g(-1) for Ni, 24 microg g(-1) for As, 64 microg g(-1) for Cu, 447 microg g(-1) for Mn, 0.27 microg g(-1) for Hg, 66 microg g(-1) for Pb, and 248 microg g(-1) for Zn. The results from this study can assist further in the determination of sediment reference conditions, to assess chemical status, within the above-mentioned directives; likewise, it will be studied as a useful methodology in determining regional metal backgrounds in other European countries.     

Measuring the economic benefits of residential water quality improvement in Ulsan,Korea using a contingent valuation

Korean people are getting more concerned about their health and their interest in clean water is increasing continuously. The source of portable water in Ulsan is the Nakdong river, which is one of the most polluted in the country. Thus, the Ulsan metropolitan government has a plan to move the water-collecting area to supply cleaner residential water. This study attempts to measure the benefits of residential water quality improvement in Ulsan using contingent valuation method. Furthermore, we allowed for a nonzero probability of unwillingness to pay in contingent valuation experiments by using spike models, because 55.6 percent of respondents stated ‘no’ to the given bids to improve their residential water quality although other respondents stated that they would be willing to pay a significant amount.     

Dissolved metal background levels in marine waters, for the assessment of the physico-chemical status, within the European Water Framework Directive

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) has, as its ultimate aim, a reduction in the concentrations of hazardous substances in the marine environment, i.e. 'background' values. Hence, the determination of natural background levels of heavy metals, to distinguish between natural element concentrations and anthropogenically-influenced concentrations, is highly relevant. Some studies have shown the convenience in the derivation of local background levels, especially if they are necessary for environmental assessment. Nevertheless, although such studies exist for sediments, there are only a few previous investigations on metal background values in sea water. Likewise, there is not any standard procedure to determine such levels in waters, nor general agreement on the statistical methodologies to be applied. In this contribution, background levels of heavy metals (As, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn), in estuarine and coastal waters within the Basque Country (northern Spain), according to ranges in salinity, are estimated using statistical tools. Ni and Pb have been considered elsewhere (2455/2001/EC) as priority substances under the WFD. Hence, this approach can assist further in the determination of water reference conditions, to assess chemical and physico-chemical status in other European countries; this, affects, ultimately, the ecological status, as defined within the WFD.     

Social preferences and economic valuation for water quality and river restoration: the Segura River,Spain

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) aims at improving the ecological status of the water bodies in Europe. In this context, some rivers are currently being restored and, in accordance with this Directive, the restoration actions have to be evaluated from a socio‐economic approach. This work applies the Choice Modelling method to the WFD provisions for river restoration. This method proves to be useful for the economic valuation of the restoration measures, as well as a very important tool for people's public participation. In this sense, the water quality improvement has been defined as a priority action from a social point of view. Moreover, the method used has provided answers to both basic questions included in the WFD: the calculation of the economic value of the Segura River's ecological flow, the decrease of which would pose an environmental cost, and the estimation of the environmental income generated by this river.     

A review of catchment management in the new context of drinking water safety plans

By managing a catchment effectively, the range and amount of contaminants entering waters used for public water supply can be reduced, with resultant benefits for both water companies and consumers. Consequently, catchment management is increasingly being recognised as being at the heart of the water environment. An overview of current and previous catchment management initiatives is given, along with the European Landscape Convention, which could be used as a vehicle for the implementation of a national catchment management strategy. The adoption of the drinking water safety plan approach is strongly advocated by the World Health Organisation, and effective catchment management underpins this approach. Effective management of our catchments will also make a significant contribution to meeting our obligations under the Water Framework Directive, by helping to address the serious issue of diffuse pollution from agriculture.     

Household willingness to pay for a smart water metering and monitoring system: The case of South Korea

This paper attempts to appraise the public value of expanding the introduction of a smart water metering and monitoring system (SWMMS) nationwide by adopting a contingent valuation approach of asking about a consumer's preference for a good using a survey of people. Randomly chosen 1000 households were interviewed using the one-and-one-half-bounded question. The monthly public value was obtained as KRW 862 (USD 0.77) per household, equivalent to 6.6% of a water bill. The monthly related cost was calculated as KRW 425 (USD 0.38) per household. Thus, the introduction of an SWMMS would be socially profitable.     

Game theory based models to analyze water conflicts in the Middle Route of the South-to-North Water Transfer Project in China

This study applied game theory based models to analyze and solve water conflicts concerning water allocation and nitrogen reduction in the Middle Route of the South-to-North Water Transfer Project in China. The game simulation comprised two levels, including one main game with five players and four sub-games with each containing three sub-players. We used statistical and econometric regression methods to formulate payoff functions of the players, economic valuation methods (EVMs) to transform non-monetary value into economic one, cost-benefit Analysis (CBA) to compare the game outcomes, and scenario analysis to investigate the future uncertainties. The validity of game simulation was evaluated by comparing predictions with observations. The main results proved that cooperation would make the players collectively better off, though some player would face losses. However, players were not willing to cooperate, which would result in a prisoners' dilemma. Scenarios simulation results displayed that players in water scare area could not solve its severe water deficit problem without cooperation with other players even under an optimistic scenario, while the uncertainty of cooperation would come from the main polluters. The results suggest a need to design a mechanism to reduce the risk of losses of those players by a side payment, which provides them with economic incentives to cooperate.     

Awareness of coping costs and willingness to pay for urban drinking water service: Evidence from Lahore,Pakistan

The global population is rapidly urbanizing, increasing pressure on scarce water resources. Lahore, Pakistan, is a case in point, with limited options for increasing water supply to meet booming demand. We ask whether households are willing to pay more cost-reflective tariffs following a simple, randomized information treatment involving calculation of the costs of coping with poor service quality. Treated households are 20 percentage points more likely to acquiesce to increased tariffs for improved service, and median monthly WTP increases 17–18%. A simple verbal procedure can increase acceptance of price increases, offering managers a valuable tool for water demand management.     

Valuing the environment in developing countries: modelling the impact of distrust in public authorities' ability to deliver public services on the citizens' willingness to pay for improved environmental quality

In this paper, we employ the choice experiment method to estimate citizens' valuation of an intervention that proposes to improve the quality of the wastewater deposited in the Ganges River, India. We interviewed 150 randomly selected citizens of Chandernagore, along the banks of the Ganges River, to elicit their willingness to pay (WTP) for this intervention, measured in terms of higher municipality taxes. The findings reveal that almost all of the citizens value wastewater quality, though majority protested the intervention, and stated that they donot trust the authorities for effective management of funds. These protest responses were controlled for with the nested logit model. The results reveal that the citizens are willing to pay significant amounts for improved wastewater quality. Municipalities could rely to some extent on their citizens' WTP higher taxes but municipalities' performance, trustworthiness, accountability, as well as the citizens' perceptions of these, should be improved.     

The value of trees, water and open space as reflected by house prices in the Netherlands

An attractive environment is likely to influence house prices. Houses in attractive settings will have an added value over similar, less favourably located houses. This effect is intuitively felt, but does it always occur? Which environmental factors make a location an attractive place to live in? The present study explored the effect of different environmental factors on house prices. The research method was the hedonic pricing method, which uses statistical analysis to estimate that part of a price due to a particular attribute. Nearly 3000 house transactions, in eight towns or regions in the Netherlands, were studied to estimate the effect of environmental attributes on transaction prices. Some of the most salient results were as follows. We found the largest increases in house prices due to environmental factors (up to 28%) for houses with a garden facing water, which is connected to a sizeable lake. We were also able to demonstrate that a pleasant view can lead to a considerable increase in house price, particularly if the house overlooks water (8–10%) or open space (6–12%). In addition, the analysis revealed that house price varies by landscape type. Attractive landscape types were shown to attract a premium of 5–12% over less attractive environmental settings.     

Copper and zinc water quality standards under the EU Water Framework Directive: the use of a tiered approach to estimate the levels of failure

Environmental quality standards are an important tool for assessing the chemical quality of water bodies under the Water Framework Directive. However, there must be confidence in assessments of any failure to avoid disproportionate investment in unnecessary risk reduction. Metals present a number of unique challenges for environmental regulators in that they are naturally occurring and their ecotoxicology is driven, in part, by the physico-chemical conditions of the water body in which they are present. This paper describes the use of a tiered approach that could be adopted to assess compliance with any future environmental quality standards for metals under the Water Framework Directive. Through this approach, the use of background concentrations is considered and also bioavailability via the use of biotic ligand models. This assessment is based on an analysis of routine Environment Agency chemical monitoring data combined with biological indices to support results of the approach. Using copper and zinc as examples, it is shown that it is important to take account of background concentrations and the bioavailability of metals, otherwise the risk of impact from metals may be significantly overestimated. The approach presented here provides a methodology by which regulators and the regulated community may implement surface water standards for metals under the Water Framework Directive.     

River water quality of the River Cherwell: an agricultural clay-dominated catchment in the upper Thames Basin, southeastern England

The water quality of the River Cherwell and a tributary of it, the Ray, are described in terms of point and diffuse sources of pollution, for this rural area of the upper Thames Basin. Point sources of pollution dominate at the critical ecological low flow periods of high biological activity. Although the surface geology is predominantly clay, base flow is partly supplied from springs in underlying carbonate-bearing strata, which influences the water quality particularly with regards to calcium and alkalinity. The hydrogeochemistry of the river is outlined and the overall importance of urban point sources even in what would normally be considered to be rural catchments is stressed in relation to the European Unions Water Framework Directive. Issues of phosphorus stripping at sewage treatment works are also considered: such stripping on the Cherwell has reduced phosphorus concentrations by about a factor of two, but this is insufficient for the needs of the Water Framework Directive.     

Adaptation and evaluation of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) for use as an effective tool to characterize drinking source water quality

Protecting drinking source water quality is a critical step in ensuring a safe supply of drinking water. Increasingly, drinking source water protection programs rely on the active participation of various stakeholders with differing degrees of water science knowledge. A drinking source water quality index presents a potential communication and analysis tool to facilitate cooperation between diverse interest groups as well as represent composite water quality. We tested the effectiveness of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) in capturing expert assessments of drinking water quality. In cooperation with a panel of drinking water quality experts we identified a core set of parameters to reflect common source water concerns. Drinking source water target values were drafted for use in the index corresponding to two basic treatment levels. Index scores calculated using the core parameter set and associated source water target values were strongly correlated with expert assessments of water quality. We recommend a modified index calculation procedure to accommodate parameters measured at different frequencies within any particular study period. The resulting drinking source water CCME WQI provides a valuable means of monitoring, communicating, and understanding surface source water quality.