Sintering characterization of UO2 powders

The influence of a number of powder characteristics on the sintering behaviour of UO₂ has been evaluated. A good correlation is found between the green and sintered densities ($\text{d}{}_{\mathrm{g}}$ and $\text{d}{}_{\mathrm{s}}$) and the specific surface area as determined by Knudsen flow permeametry. This correlation, however, does not reveal the differences in behaviour which are borne out by the sintering index defined as: $\text{I}{}_{\mathrm{s}}\text{= (d}{}_{\mathrm{s}}\text{? d}{}_{\mathrm{g}}\text{)/(100 ? d}{}_{\mathrm{g}}\text{)}$. These differences are explained in terms of the absence or presence of open porosity within the powders, which can be measured by means of mercury porosimetry. Thermal treatments have a more pronounced effect on the sinterability of powders with open porosity than on those without.     

Optical properties of UO2 and PuO2

We perform first-principles calculations of electronic structure and optical properties for UO₂ and PuO₂ based on the density functional theory using the generalized gradient approximation (GGA) + U scheme. The main features in orbital-resolved partial density of states for occupied f and p orbitals, unoccupied d orbitals, and related gaps are well reproduced compared to experimental observations. Based on the satisfactory ground-state electronic structure calculations, the dynamical dielectric function and related optical spectra, i.e., the reflectivity, adsorption coefficient, energy-loss, and refractive index spectrum, are obtained. These results are consistent with the available experiments.     

Reduction of UO2 by H2

The reactivity of H₂ towards UO₂²⁺ has been studied experimentally using a PEEK coated autoclave where the UO₂²⁺ concentration in aqueous solution containing 2 mM carbonate was measured as a function of time at p_H2∼40 bar. The experiments were performed in the temperature interval 74-100 °C. In addition, the suggested catalytic activity of UO₂ on the reduction of UO₂²⁺ by H₂ was investigated. The results clearly show that H₂ is capable of reducing UO₂²⁺ to UO₂ without the presence of a catalyst. The reaction is of first order with respect to UO₂²⁺. The activation energy for the process is 130 ± 24 kJ mol⁻¹ and the rate constant is k_298K=3.6×10⁻⁹ l mol⁻¹ s⁻¹. The activation enthalpy and entropy for the process was determined to 126 kJ mol⁻¹ and 16.5 J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹, respectively. Traces of oxygen were shown to inhibit the reduction process. Hence, the suggested catalytic activity of freshly precipitated UO₂ on the reduction of UO₂²⁺ by H₂ could not be confirmed.     

Kinetics of initial stage of sintering of UO2 and UO2 with Nd2O3 addition

The kinetics of initial stage sintering of UO₂ powder were reinvestigated, using Ar-10% H₂ atmosphere. The effect of the addition of neodynium oxide was studied. The results revealed that surface and grain boundary diffusion mechanisms act simultaneously. The values of activation energies were found to be $\text{48.48 ± 3.51 kcal/mole}$ in the temperature range 870–942°C and $\text{89.88 ± 9.87 kcal/mole}$ in the temperature range of 942–1030°C for UO₂, and $\text{115.61 ± 7.77 kcal/mole}$ in the temperature range 1030–1150°C for UO₂ + Nd₂O₃. An important decrease in the calculated diffusion coefficient occurs by the addition of Nd₂O₃.     

Fission-induced densification of UO2

A new technique has been developed to study fission-induced densification and hot-pressing of UO₂ at very low temperatures without complications from fracturing or other concurrent thermal effects. Thin disks of UO₂ of 0.22 to 20% enrichment and differing microstructural stability, were irradiated in the core of the CP — reactor at temperatures below 200°C and at pressures from 1 atm to 20.7 MPa. Results indicate that the pressurizing medium, NaK, had penetrated the open porosity at high pressure and impeded densification. To rationalize this effect, the previously proposed models for radiationinduced densification are critically reviewed. Modifications to models involving thermal sintering and hot-pressing, and pore resolution appear the most tenable. The former mechanism leads to predictions that fission-induced hot-pressing can occur, and ex-reactor sintering and hot-pressing should correlate with in-reactor densification. The proximity of pores and grain boundaries is also stressed. The effect of NaK logging is rationalized by changes in pore surface energy and by stabilization of small pores aginst complete resolution.     

Sintering diagrams of UO2

Ashby's method of constructing sintering diagrams has been modified to obtain relative contribution diagrams directly from the computer. It is endeavoured here to study the interplay of sintering variables and mechanisms and determine the factors that affect the participation of mechanisms in UO₂. By studying the physical properties, it emerges that the order of inaccuracies is small in most cases and do not affect the diagrams. On the other hand, even a 10% error in activation energies, which is quite plausible, would make a significant difference to the diagram. The main criticism of Ashby's approach is that the numerous properties and equations used, communicate their inaccuracies to the diagrams and make them unreliable. Our study has considerably reduced the number of factors that need to be refined to make the sintering diagrams more meaningful.     

Phasengleichgewichte in den systemen UO2-UO2,67-ThO2 und UO2 + x-NPO2

Solid-state chemical investigations have established that in the compositional range UO₂-UO_2.67-ThO₃ of the U-Th-O ternary system, the following single-phase domains exist: U₃O₈, which does not dissolve any ThO₂ in the solid state; an ordered M₄O₉ phase on the section between U₄O₉ and U₂Th₂O₉, below ≈ 1150 °C; and a phase with fluorite structure which occupies a large part of the system and which at 1250 °C is bounded by the compositions UO₂-UO_2.25 (U_0.43, ThO_0.57)O_0.25-ThO₃. The maximum O/M ratio of the “fluorite” phase is O:(U + Th) = 2.25. The highest oxidation valency of uranium is 5.30; this value falls as more thorium oxide is incorporated in the (U.Th)O_{2 + x} “fluorite” phase.     

Surface,grain boundary and interfacial energies in UO2 and UO2-Ni

Using the multiphase equilibrium method for determination of wetting angles we determined the surface and grain boundary energies of polycrystalline stoichiometric UO₂ at 1500, 1750 and 1900°C. The data of the surface energy of UO₂ agree with most of the published results. Linear temperature functions were obtained by extrapolation for both quantities between 0 K and the melting point of UO₂. Measurements of the interfacial energy in the UO₂-Ni system yielded a linear dependence on temperature in the range investigated.     

Corrosion of UO2 and ThO2: A quantum-mechanical investigation

The addition of Th to U-based fuels increases resistance to corrosion due to differences in redox-chemistry and electronic properties between UO₂ and ThO₂. Quantum-mechanical techniques were used to calculate surface energy trends for ThO₂, resulting in (1 1 1) < (1 1 0) < (1 0 0). Adsorption energy trends were calculated for water and oxygen on the stable (1 1 1) surface of UO₂ and ThO₂, and the effect of model set-up on these trends was evaluated. Molecular water is more stable than dissociated water on both binary oxides. Oxidation rates for atomic oxygen interacting with defect-free UO₂(1 1 1) were calculated to be extremely slow if no water is present, but nearly instantaneous if water is present. The semi-conducting nature of UO₂ is found to enhance the adsorption of oxygen in the presence of water through changes in near-surface electronic structure; the same effect is not observed on the insulating surface of ThO₂.     

The effects of alpha-radiolysis on UO2 dissolution determined from batch experiments with Pu-doped UO2

The effects of alpha dose-rate on UO₂ dissolution were investigated by performing dissolution experiments with ²³⁸Pu-doped UO₂ materials containing nominal alpha-activity levels of ∼1-100 Ci/kg UO₂ (actual levels 0.4-80 Ci/kg UO₂), in 0.1 M NaClO₄ and in 0.1 M NaClO₄ + 0.1 M carbonate. Dissolution rates increased less than 10-fold for an almost 100-fold increase in doping level and fall within the range of predictions of the Mixed Potential Model (a detailed mechanistic model for used fuel dissolution). Dissolution rates were lower in carbonate-free solutions and enrichment of ²³⁸Pu on the UO₂ surface was suggested in carbonate solutions. Effective G values, defined as the ratio of the total amount of U dissolved divided by the maximum possible amount of U dissolved by radiolytically produced H₂O₂, increased with decreasing doping levels. This suggests that the dissolution reaction at high dose rates is limited by the reaction rate between UO₂ and H₂O₂, but becomes increasingly limited by the rate of production of H₂O₂ at lower dose rates.     

Electrical conductivity of UO2-ThO2 solid solutions

The electrical conductivities of UO_2+x. ThO₂ and their solid solutions, in thermodynamic equilibrium with the gas phase, were measured as a function of temperature, and of oxygen partial pressure in the temperatnre range 800 to 1200°C. The slope of the plot log α versus 1/$\text{T}$ for UO_2+x and UO₂-rich solid solutions exhibits a single region, whereas in the ThO₂-rich solid solutions it exhibits two regions. The pressure dependence of the conductivity (σ) in the UO₂-rich solid solutions can be represented by σ ∝ [O_i] ∝ in the range of $\text{0.01 < x < 0.1}$. Here, O_i is an interstitial oxygen and the partial pressure of oxygen, and it varies with the ThO₂ content. At greater deviation from stoichiometry ($\text{x ? 0.1}$) the presence of U₄O₉ or (Th U)₄O₉ phases influences the conductivity data. In ThO$\text{2}$ or ThO₂-rich solid solutions. P-type conduction at high oxygen pressures is interpreted as arising from the incorporation of excess oxygen into oxygen vacancies.     

High-temperature specific heat of UO2 ThO2, and A12O3

The high-temperature specific heat of solid UO₂, ThO₂, and Al₂O₃ can be represented by an equation of the form $\text{C}{}_{\mathrm{p(s)}}\text{= 3}{}_{\mathrm{n}}\text{RF(?}{}_{\mathrm{D}}\text{/T) + dT}{}^3$, (1) where ?_D is the Debye temperature, F(?_D/T) is the Debye function, $\text{d}$ represents contributions of the anharmonic vibrations within the lattice, and $\text{n}$ denotes the number of atoms per molecule. In the liquid the corresponding equation is $\text{C}{}_{\mathrm{p(1)}}\text{= 3}{}_{\mathrm{n}}\text{RF(?}{}_{\mathrm{D}}\text{/T) +}\text{h}\text{T}{}^2$, (2) where h is the anharmonic term. It is shown that for Al₂O₃ and UO₂, where experimental data for the liquid phase are also available, $\text{d}\text{h}$ has the same value, Indicating that both materials behave identically. If we compare the thermodynamic relationship $\text{C}{}_{\mathrm{p}}\text{? C}{}_{\mathrm{v}}\text{= Vα}{}^2\text{KT}$, (3) where V is the volume, $\text{α}$ the volume expansion coefficient, and $\text{K}$ the bulk modulus, with equation (1), It follows that d must be equal to $\text{Vα}{}^2\text{K}\text{T}{}^2$; the value of $\text{Vα}{}^2\text{K}\text{T}{}^2$ is calculated in the temperature region where d was obtained; within experimental error they are equal.     

Formation of U2C3 in the reaction of UC2 with UO2

The formation of U₂C₃ by the reaction of UC₂ with UO₂ has been studied by chemical and X-ray analyses at temperatures between 1400 and 1700 °C in vacuo. The reaction is represented by 7 UC₂ + UO₂ → 4 U₂C₃ + 2 CO.     

Oxygen potential of hypo-stoichiometric Lu-doped UO2

Oxygen potentials of hypo-stoichiometric Lu-doped UO₂, (U_0.80Lu_0.20)O_2−x, were experimentally investigated by thermogravimetric analysis using H₂O/H₂ gas equilibria at 1173, 1273 and 1473 K. The oxygen potentials of (U,Lu)O_2−x were higher than those of other forms of rare earth-doped UO₂, specifically (U,Nd)O_2−x, (U,Gd)O_2−x, and (U,Er)O_2−x. Slope analyses for plots of oxygen potential versus deviation from stoichiometry indicated that (U_0.80Lu_0.20)O_2−x had a similar defect structure to that of the other forms of rare earth-doped UO₂. A relationship between the effective ionic radii and oxygen potentials was found for the hypo-stoichiometric rare earth-doped UO₂.     

The creep of UO2 fuel doped with Nb2O5

The creep of UO₂ containing small additions of Nb₂O₅ has been investigated in the stress range 0.5–90 MN/m² at temperatures between 1422 and 1573 K. The functional dependence of the creep rate of five dopant concentrations up to 0.8 mol% Nb₂O₅ has been examined and it was established that in all the materials the secondary creep rate could be represented by the equation /.εkT = Aσⁿexp(?Q/RT), where /.ε is the steady state creep rate per hour, Q the activation energy and A and n are constants for each material. It was observed that Nb₂O₅ additions can cause a dramatic increase in the steady state creep rate as long as the niobium ion is maintained in the Nb⁵⁺ valence state. Material containing 0.4 mol% Nb₂O₅ creeps three orders of magnitude faster than the pure material.Analysis of the results in terms of grain size compensated viscosity suggest that, like “pure” UO₂, the creep rate of Nb₂O₅ doped fuel is diffusion-controlled and proportional to the reciprocal square of the grain size. A model is developed which suggests that the increase in creep rate results from suppression of the U⁵⁺ ion concentration by the addition of Mb⁵⁺ ions, which modifies the crystal defect structure and hence the uranium ion diffusion coefficient.