Detection of Roundup Ready soy in highly processed products by triplex nested PCR

Till now, there still has not an effective detection method for the highly processed GM (genetically modified) products. A novel method of the triplex nested PCR, was developed for the sensitive detection of several foreign genes (Lectin, CaMV 35S, CTP, CP4-EPSPS, NOS) in highly processed products. We detected seven representative highly processed products (soya lecithin, soya protein powder, chocolate beverage, infant rice cereal, crude soybean oil, soybean refine oil, soybean salad oil) by the triplex nested PCR. The first triplex PCR cannot detect the insert signals in the processed products, and the sensitivity is 0.5%. However the second triplex PCR, which can simultaneously detect RR soybean targets with a sensitivity of 0.005% in the triplex nested PCR. The result indicates the advanced level of the method for the GM products detection. It is a flexible assay to detect the RR soybean in highly processed products.     

Development and application of DNA analytical methods for the detection of GMOs in food

The principle of direct detection of recombinant DNA in food by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is discussed following the three main steps: DNA-extraction, amplification by PCR and verification of PCR products.

Suitable methods for genomic DNA isolation from homogenous, heterogeneous, low DNA containing matrices (e.g. lecithin), gelatinising material (e.g. starch), derivatives and finished products based on classical protocols and/or a combination with commercially available extraction kits are discussed. Various factors contribute to the degradation of DNA such as hydrolysis due to prolonged heat-treatment, nuclease activity and increased depurination and hydrolysis at low pH. The term “DNA quality” is defined as the degree of degradation of DNA (fragment size less than 400 bp in highly processed food) and by the presence or absence of potent inhibitors of the PCR and is, therefore, a key criterion. In general, no DNA is detectable in highly heat-treated food products, hydrolysed plant proteins (e.g. soya sauce), purified lecithin, starch derivatives (e.g. maltodextrins, glucose syrup) and defined chemical substances such as refined soya oil.

If the nucleotide sequence of a target gene or stretch of transgenic DNA is already known specific primers can be synthesised and the segment of rDNA amplified. Detection limits are in the range 20 pg–10 ng target DNA and 0.0001–1% mass fraction of GMO. Amplification products are then separated by agarose gel electrophoresis and the expected fragment size estimated by comparison with a DNA molecular weight marker.

Several methods are used to verify PCR results and they vary in reliability, precision and cost. They include specific cleavage of the amplification products by restriction endonucleases or the more time-consuming, but also more specific, transfer of separated PCR-products onto membranes (Southern Blot) followed by hybridisation with a DNA probe specific for the target sequence. Alternatively, PCR products may be verified by direct sequencing. Nested-PCR assays combines high specificity and sensitivity.

Methods for the screening of 35S-promoter, NOS-terminator and other marker genes used in a wide range of GMOs, the specific detection of approved products such as FlavrSavr™ tomatoes, Roundup Ready™ Soya, Bt-maize 176 and official validated methods for potatoes and genetically modified micro-organisms, that have a model character, are available. Methods to analyse new GMO products are being validated by interlaboratory tests and new techniques are in development (e.g. EC project: DMIF-GEN). However, these efforts may be hampered by the lack of availability of GMO reference material as well as specific sequence information which so far can only be obtained from the suppliers.     

Immunodiagnostic methods for detection of 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase in Roundup Ready® soybeans

We have developed immunological-based detection methods to support labeling of protein-containing food fractions derived from Roundup Ready® soybeans. Western blotting and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) procedures were developed to measure the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (CP4 EPSPS) protein derived from the Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4 in the major processed fractions derived from Roundup Ready soybean. Expression of the CP4 EPSPS protein confers tolerance to Roundup® herbicide. The western blotting method utilizes a polyclonal goat anti-CP4 EPSPS antibody which specifically binds to CP4 EPSPS followed by detection of bound goat antibody with biotinylated Protein-G. Detection of this complex is accomplished using horseradish-peroxidase (HRP) labeled NeutrAvidin™ and signal development by enhanced chemiluminesence. Data from western blot analyses of these fractions establish that stable epitopes remain after the seed has been subjected to processing conditions typically employed by the food industry, thereby enabling development of an ELISA method. The ELISA for measurement of CP4 EPSPS is a triple antibody sandwich procedure utilizing a monoclonal capture antibody and a polyclonal detection antibody followed by a third biotin labeled monoclonal anti-rabbit antibody. Sandwich formation is detected using HRP labeled NeutrAvidin™ with color development using TMB substrate. In the sandwich ELISA, the immunological activity of CP4 EPSPS was reduced by the extraction method required to solubilize CP4 EPSPS protein from processed fractions. Sensitivity of the CP4 EPSPS ELISA was sufficient to detect CP4 EPSPS protein in processed soybean fractions that contained 2% Roundup Ready soybean mixed with conventional processed soybean fractions, thereby making the ELISA an acceptable method to assess CP4 EPSPS protein in processed soybean fractions. Data on sensitivity, accuracy, precision and specificity, established that the western blot and ELISA methods are appropriate for compliance with the EC Novel Foods Regulation.     

A multiplex nested PCR assay for the simultaneous detection of genetically modified soybean,maize and rice in highly processed products

The use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) as food products becomes more and more widespread. The European Union has implemented a set of very strict procedures for the approval to grow, import and/or utilize GMOs as food or food ingredients. Thus, analytical methods for detection of the GMOs are necessary in order to verify compliance with labeling requirements. There are few effective screening methods for highly processed GM (genetically modified) products. Four genes (CP4-EPSPS, Cry1A(b), BAR, and, PAT) are common exogenous genes used in commercialized transgenic soybean, maize, and rice. In the present study, a multiplex nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method was developed to simultaneously detect the four exogenous genes and one endogenous gene in two runs. We tested eleven representative highly processed products samples (soya lecithin, soya protein powder, chocolate beverage, infant rice cereal, soybean refine oil, soybean salad oil, maize oil, maize protein powder, maize starch, maize jam) using the developed method, and amplicons of endogenous gene and transgenic fragments were obtained from all the processed products except for soybean refined oil, soybean salad oil and maize oil, and the sensitivity was 0.005%. These results indicate that multiplex nested PCR is appropriate for qualitative detection of transgenic soybean, maize and rice in highly processed products except for refined oil.     

A general multiplex-PCR assay for the general detection of genetically modified soya and maize

The use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) as food and in food products is becoming more and more widespread. The European Union has implemented a set of very strict procedures for the approval to grow, import and/or utilize GMOs as food or food ingredients. Thus, analytical methods for the detection of GMOs are necessary in order to verify compliance with labelling requirements. In the past few years, different PCR-based methods for the specific detection of the most economically important GMOs have been proposed. A molecular screening method based on multiplex-PCR that involves amplification of specific soya or maize sequences from plant DNA and the amplification of 35S promoter and NOS terminator for the detection of genetically modified soya and maize was developed. The m-PCR assay discriminated the GMO very quickly, reproducibly and in a cost saving and less time-consuming way. It is a flexible assay to conduce a preliminary GMO screening for detection of genetically modified soya and maize.     

Detection of recombinant DNA of genetically modified (GM) soybeans in heat-treated GM soybeans and commercial natto

We examined the detection of recombinant DNA of genetically modified (GM) soybeans in heat-treated GM soybeans and commercial natto. Genomic DNA was extracted from heat-treated GM soybeans and natto using the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) or alkaline lysis methods. First, primer pairs amplifying the junction region between CTP and CP4EPSPS in recombinant soybean were designed; they gave PCR products of band sizes, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, and 150 bp. When DNA solution extracted from heat-treated GM soybeans by the alkaline lysis method was applied to polymerase chain reaction (PCR), PCR products of the expected 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, and 150 bp were detected by agarose gel electrophoresis. However, PCR products were not detected in DNA extracted from heat-treated GM soybeans by the CTAB method, and no PCR products were detected in either extract from natto. Next, PCR using primer pairs amplifying the junction region between NOS and part of CP4EPSPS were designed; they gave PCR products of 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, and 150 bp. The expected PCR products from all DNA extracts were detected (heat-treated GM soybeans by CTAB, 100–140 bp; heat-treated GM soybeans by alkaline lysis, 100–150 bp; natto by CTAB, 100–130 bp; and natto by alkaline lysis, 100–150 bp). These results indicate that judicious selection of DNA extraction methods and target sequences is important to detect DNA from natto and recombinant DNA can be detected in natto.     

Detection of gluten-containing cereals in flours and “gluten-free” bakery products by polymerase chain reaction

A polymerase chain reaction-based method for the detection of gluten-containing cereals in flours and “gluten-free” bakery products was optimized and its intralaboratory validation was carried out. The optimized method involved DNA isolation by chaotropic solid-phase extraction and PCR with primers of Dahinden et al. [Dahinden I., von Büren M., Lüthy J., 2001. A quantitative competitive PCR system to detect contamination of wheat, barley and rye in gluten-free food for coeliac patients. European Food Research and Technology 212, 228–233]. Using purified DNA, intrinsic detection limit of 42 ± 12 pg was determined, which corresponds to 10° genome copies. By the analysis of a panel of 26 European wheat cultivars and flours from six non-gluten-containing plants, which are commonly used for the production of gluten-free bakery products, inclusivity of 100% and exclusivity of 100% were determined. By the analysis of model samples of soya flour and cakes, detection limit of 0.1% (w/w) of fine wheat flour was determined, which is suitable for the analysis of “gluten-free” food products, as it is approximately equivalent to the limit of 10 mg per 100 g for gluten stated by Codex Alimentarius. The method was successfully applied to four samples of flours and 13 brands of biscuits designated “gluten-free”, out of which two flours and one brand of biscuits were found positive for gluten-containing cereals. The method proved to be suitable for routine use, it was relatively straightforward and could be completed in one working day.     

Prevalence of genetically modified foods (GM foods) in the United Arab Emirates

The real and/or perceived risks of genetically modified organisms (GMO) prompted food safety regulators to label the GM products. Although there are no legislations on GM labeling and cultivation of GM crops in the UAE, the present study aims to monitor the status of GM foods in the UAE market using Light cycler real time PCR technology and GMO screening kit. The yield and purity of DNA extracted by CTAB method was higher when compared to Qiagen plant kit with an exception of soya products for which Qiagen kit yielded better results.Out of 128 samples tested, 16 were positive for plant, 35S promoter and Tnos fragment. In conclusion, GMO screening assay applied in this study confirms the presence of genetically modified food in the UAE market. The rapidly growing GM market with multiple events and the threat from unapproved events signifies the value of surveillance program for monitoring the status of GM foods.     

Variation of the physicochemical properties diesel-biodiesel blends – range 0–100%

Recently biodiesel has become more attractive because it is made from renewable resources. In this study we demonstrate how the proportion of diesel/biodiesel blends determines the qualitative parameters and energy efficiency of the final product. The use of biodiesel in blends with conventional diesel is becoming more and more valuable, based on European directive for use up to 20% biodiesel by 2020. We came to the conclusion that mixtures up 30% Biodiesel gives product within diesel specification limits which is suitable for commercial use. This methodology can be a manual for the production line of mixtures for commercial use.     

Concentration of ochratoxin A in breakfast cereals and snacks consumed in the United States

A total of 144 breakfast cereal and snack samples collected from six areas in the United States (U.S.) were surveyed for the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA). All samples are the processed products including mainly corn, oat, wheat, and rice. The analytical methods in this study were immunoaffinity columns (IAC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection (FLD). The method provided recoveries of OTA from all sample matrices in the range of 95–100%. The limits of detection and limits of quantification for OTA were 0.032 and 0.10 ng/g for corn, wheat, and rice based samples; 0.038 and 0.12 ng/g for oat based samples, respectively. Analytical results showed that 75 samples (52%) were contaminated with OTA in the range of 0.10 and 7.43 ng/g. Among the OTA contaminated samples, 40% were labeled as organic and 60% were conventional with mean concentrations of 1.21 and 1.07 ng/g, respectively. There were ten contaminated samples, all from oat based products, exceeding the maximum limits for OTA by European Commission Regulation (3 ng/g) in cereal based products.     

Fast and sensitive aflatoxin B1 and total aflatoxins ELISAs for analysis of peanuts,maize and feed ingredients

Aflatoxins are a group of carcinogenic compounds produced by Aspergillus fungi that can grow on different agricultural crops. Both acute and chronic exposure to these mycotoxins can cause serious illness. Due to the high occurrence of aflatoxins in crops worldwide fast and cost-effective analytical methods are required for the identification of contaminated agricultural commodities before they are processed into final products and placed on the market. In order to provide new tools for aflatoxin screening two prototype fast ELISA methods: one for the detection of aflatoxin B₁ and the other for total aflatoxins were developed. Seven monoclonal antibodies with unique high sensitivity and at the same time good cross-reactivity profiles were produced. The monoclonal antibodies were characterized and two antibodies showing IC₅₀ of 0.037 ng/mL and 0.031 ng/mL for aflatoxin B₁ were applied in simple and fast direct competitive ELISA tests. The methods were validated for peanut matrix as this crop is one of the most affected by aflatoxin contamination. The detection capabilities of aflatoxin B₁ and total aflatoxins ELISAs were 0.4 μg/kg and 0.3 μg/kg for aflatoxin B₁, respectively, which are one of the lowest reported values. Total aflatoxins ELISA was also validated for the detection of aflatoxins B₂, G₁ and G₂. The application of the developed tests was demonstrated by screening 32 peanut samples collected from the UK retailers. Total aflatoxins ELISA was further applied to analyse naturally contaminated maize porridge and distiller's dried grain with solubles samples and the results were correlated with these obtained by UHPLC-MS/MS method.     

PCR-based assay for the detection of Alternaria species and correlation with HPLC determination of altenuene, alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether production in tomato products

Alternaria spp. contamination and subsequent production of mycotoxins is a common problem in vegetable crops. Identification of Alternaria species by traditional methods requires specific skills and may not detect toxigenic moulds inactivated by food processing. By using molecular methods such as PCR the detection of Alternaria spp. becomes possible directly from the food or feed samples. In this study, a PCR method based on the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) genetic marker has been used for detection of Alternaria spp. in raw and processed commercial tomato samples. Occurrence of altenuene, alternariol and alternariol methyl ether in the samples was analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in order to assess the ability of the PCR assay to identify tomato samples containing Alternaria mycotoxins. The PCR assay revealed the presence of Alternaria spp. DNA in 41 out of 90 commercial samples (45.6%), while HPLC detected at least one of the Alternaria mycotoxins within 31 of the PCR positive samples. Detection of Alternaria DNA correlated well with the presence of the analysed Alternaria mycotoxins, indicating that the PCR protocol developed in this work for detection of Alternaria spp. DNA could be used as an indirect marker of the presence of Alternaria mycotoxins in raw and processed tomato products.     

Microsatellite high resolution melting (SSR-HRM) analysis for authenticity testing of protected designation of origin (PDO) sweet cherry products

DNA based methods have been employed recently for plant species identification and their ingredients in the final food products. The aim of this work was to setup a microsatellite-based method not only to distinguish sweet cherry cultivars but also to compare different techniques for DNA isolation and DNA fragment analysis for verifying the presence of protected designation of origin (PDO) sweet cherry, at the cultivar level, in sweet cherry processed products. Thirteen microsatellites were tested and the combination of the amplification profiles of six of them, characterised by high polymorphism and simple electrophoretic patterns, enabled to distinguish and identify a PDO sweet cherry cultivar used for sweet cherry products. The obtained amplicons were all in the range of 68–258 bp, and were analyzed by capillary electrophoresis (CE) and High Resolution Melting (HRM) analysis. We compare the results obtained by both methods and analyze the differences observed. Dendrograms were constructed using data from HRM analysis and fragment analysis indicating a higher resolution capacity of the HRM method compared to fragment analysis. Moreover, costs, throughput and difficulties to implement HRM analysis and CE methods in the laboratory are discussed. In conclusion HRM analysis can be a cost effective alternative method, with higher resolution, not only to genotype sweet cherry cultivars but also to extend the use to process sweet cherry products using microsatellite markers.     

Determination of nitrofuran metabolites in shrimp muscle by liquid chromatography-photo diode array detection

The use of nitrofurans on any animal in the European Union (EU) and any animal or animal food products intended for export to the EU was banned in 1993 (except furazolidone which was banned in 1995) due to the carcinogenicity of the parent drugs and their metabolites. Thereafter, the screening of food of animal origin for nitrofurans and their metabolites became mandatory for all exports to the EU. This paper describes a High Performance Liquid Chromatography – Diode Array Detection (HPLC-DAD) method to detect tissue bound nitrofuran metabolites, namely 3-amino-2-oxazolidinone (AOZ), 3-amino-5-morpholino-methyl-1,3-oxazolidinone (AMOZ), semicarbazide (SEM) and 1-aminohydantoin (AHD). The bound residues were hydrolysed and derivatized into the corresponding nitrophenyl derivatives (NPAOZ, NPAMOZ, NPSEM and NPAHD) with 2-nitrobenzaldehyde and analysed by HPLC-UV at 275 nm. The linearity of the photometric detector response to the four derivatized nitrofuran metabolites was verified using matrix-matched calibration standards in the range of 1–20 μg/kg and the average correlation coefficients for NPAOZ, NPAMOZ, NPSEM and NPAHD were 0.9960, 0.9951, 0.9984 and 0.9993, respectively. The decision limit of the method was below the Minimum Required Performance Limit (MRPL) of 1 μg/kg, for all four nitrofuran metabolites, which makes it compatible with the EU requirements. The average recoveries for (fortified samples between 1 and 5 μg/kg) AOZ, AMOZ, SEM and AHD were 107%, 107%, 115% and 114%, respectively. This is the first report of a HPLC-DAD method detecting nitrofuran metabolites below the MRPL according to our understanding. This method has been successfully used with aquaculture and poultry products; however, currently it is validated according to EU guidelines only for shrimp muscle tissue.     

Detection strategies for food authenticity and genetically modified foods

Analytical methods for authenticity testing have been described for all types of food and can give us important indications for analytical strategies to be developed for the detection and quantitation of genetically modified foods. Transgenic plants contain newly introduced traits or marker genes that are expressed and should be detectable by DNA or protein-based methods. Recent literature clearly favours PCR as the method of choice for the identification of GMO-derived food. Quantitative competitive PCR is an important extension of this method allowing to control labelling and maximum limits to be set for genetically modified crops in non-GMO-crops.     

Needs and expectations regarding risk ranking in the food chain: A pilot survey amongst decision makers and stakeholders

Given the large number of potential risks and the increasing budgetary restrictions, risk ranking (RR) is becoming an inevitable part of food safety. Through an online questionnaire survey, we aimed to assess needs and expectations regarding RR in a sample of European decision makers and stakeholders. Responses were collected from 51 participants. The majority expressed a need for RR, and over two thirds already had some experience with RR. The main expectation from RR was an improved transparency in management decisions. The use and impact of RR in the food chain may be improved by increasing knowledge regarding RR, facilitating communication between decision makers and stakeholders, and removing hurdles related to data availability.     

Survey of plasticizers migrating from the gaskets of lids into oily food in glass jars: The second European enforcement campaign shows poor compliance work

The first joint European enforcement campaign on the migration of plasticizers from the gaskets of lids into oily foods in 2011 revealed exceeded legal limits in 24% of the samples. As a follow-up, a campaign was performed with the focus on systematic compliance work that ensures the abidance by the legal limits for the plasticizers. Chemical analysis was merely considered as a verification of the compliance work. This approach was new and a new procedure was proposed. Authorities of 12 European countries participated with 48 samples. They all used the same letters and explanatory texts. At best for 6 of the 48 products the submitted documents revealed receivable compliance work, whereby chemical analysis showed that for one of these in reality a different lid had been used. For 14 products compliance was supported by data from long term migration into test foods, but the legal limit was nevertheless exceeded for one of these and for 6 others the migrations was only slightly below it, clearly higher than in the tests reported in the supporting documentation. For 23 products compliance was only derived from conventional simulation, mostly at 10 d/40 °C, even though it was well known that such simulation may severely underestimate real migration. In fact, 9 of these products exceeded the legal limits. Most lid producers abdicated from their responsibility by delegating migration testing to the food packer, even though it is unrealistic that a packer performs tests lasting years before he uses the lids (in fact none of them did). Chemical analysis revealed wrongly declared plasticizers for 7 products. Legal limits were exceeded in 10 packed foods, which corresponded to 29% of those with free oil in contact with the gasket. Such disastrous results are seldom encountered by authorities and imperatively call for more effective enforcement.     

Official checks by an accredited laboratory on irradiated foods at an Italian market

Food irradiation can be used to increase the microbiological safety and to extend the shelf life of foods. European legislation states that any food or food ingredients must be labelled and every year each Member State, particularly Italy, has to carry out checks at marketing stage. This work reports on the results of analytical controls on 451 foodstuff samples over the period 2006–2011 performed by an Italian accredited laboratory using 4 different screening and confirmatory techniques: PSL, DNA Comet Assay, TL and ESR. A total of 18 samples were found non-compliant: 6 frog legs, 3 clams, 3 cuttlefish, 1 octopus and 1 shrimps from Vietnam; 3 squids, 1 white pepper and 1 chilli tofu from China. Non-compliances are due to both incorrect labelling and irradiation in not approved facilities in extra European/third countries. Check results also showed that among screening methods PSL is the most accurate, simple and practical standard to analyse most of samples (spices, herbs, supplements, mollusks, crustaceans and vegetables) with a low false positive classification (11%) whereas DNA Comet Assay revealed the highest percentage of false positive cases (26%). ESR is the suitable confirmatory method to detect dried fruits and foodstuffs (meat and fish product) containing bone, while TL is the best confirmatory method to detect herbs, spices and supplements, cephalopods, mollusks and crustaceans, besides fresh fruits and vegetables. In conclusion, by comparison with European data, this study suggests more checks on meat products (frog and poultry meats), fish products (cephalopods, mussels and crustacean) spices and supplements especially at import stage from countries where non approved irradiation facilities are operating (e.g. Vietnam and China).     

Evaluation of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method for rapid on-site detection of horse meat

Detection of horse DNA by loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) seems one of the most promising methods to meet the criteria of fast, robust, cost efficient, specific, and sensitive on-site detection. In the present study an assessment of the specificity and sensitivity of the LAMP horse screening assay was made and outcomes were compared with the EURL-AP (European Union Reference laboratory for Animal Proteins in feeding stuffs) qPCR method. The specificity was tested with DNA samples from seven other species. The sensitivity of the LAMP assay was subsequently challenged with different percentages of horse DNA in cattle DNA and different percentages of horse meat in cattle meat. Both qPCR and LAMP were able to reliably detect horse DNA or meat below 0.1%, but LAMP was able to do so in less than 30 min. The DNA of other species did not result in a response in the LAMP horse assay. These features show that the LAMP method is fast, specific, and sensitive. Next, 69 processed meat samples were screened for the presence of horse DNA. The results showed that the LAMP horse assay, combined with a simple and fast on-site DNA extraction method, results in similar outcomes as the EURL-AP qPCR method and is thus a promising screening assay to be used outside the laboratory. Only samples that are screened on-site as suspect in the LAMP horse assay, need to be brought to the laboratory for confirmation with the more laborious EURL-AP qPCR reference method.     

SIGMO: A decision support System for Identification of genetically modified food or feed products

Since their introduction in 1994, more and more genetically modified (GM) crops are grown worldwide and introduced in food or feed products. In the European Union (EU), the production, trade and marketing of GM products is strictly regulated, but the situation is becoming more complex due to the increasing number and complexity of GM crops, and asynchronic approval procedures with the major GM crop producing countries. Importers and traders are obliged to assess their respective supply chains for the potential presence of authorised and unauthorised GM organisms (GMOs), where wrong decisions may lead to substantial economic losses. This article presents a decision support system SIGMO aimed at guiding producers and traders with the assessment of the likelihood that their products may comprise authorised or unauthorised GM materials. The assessment is based on traceability data about the product (nature and origin of the raw materials, transportation aspects), as well as analytical results of the presence of GMOs in the final product or its ingredients. The approach uses a combination of data-driven and model-driven decision support. SIGMO is composed of (1) a data base providing data about GMO crop species produced and approved in counties worldwide, (2) a multi-attribute model for the assessment of GMO presence in food/feed products, and (3) an on-line user interface. SIGMO helps producers and traders to better comply to valid EU GMO regulations and to better control their products and supply chains in terms of the unintended presence of (unauthorised) GMOs in a cost-effective way.