Challenge and Perspective of Yangtze River Basin Water Resources Protection

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Scenario-based Impact Assessment of Land Use/Cover and Climate Changes on Water Resources and Demand: A Case Study in the Srepok River Basin,Vietnam—Cambodia

This study investigates an interdisciplinary scenario analysis to assess the potential impacts of climate, land use/cover and population changes on future water availability and demand in the Srepok River basin, a trans-boundary basin. Based on the output from a high-resolution Regional Climate Model (ECHAM 4, Scenarios A2 and B2) developed by the Southeast Asia—System for Analysis, Research and Training (SEA-START) Regional Center, future rainfall was downscaled to the study area and bias correction was carried out to generate the daily rainfall series. Land use/cover change was quantified using a GIS-based logistic regression approach and future population was projected from the historical data. These changes, individually or in combination, were then input into the calibrated hydrological model (HEC-HMS) to project future hydrological variables. The results reveal that surface runoff will be increased with increased future rainfall. Land use/cover change is found to have the largest impact on increased water demand, and thus reduced future water availability. The combined scenario shows an increasing level of water stress at both the basin and sub-basin levels, especially in the dry season.     

Water, People, and Sustainability—A Systems Framework for Analyzing and Assessing Water Governance Regimes

Freshwater resources might become the most limited resource in the future due to rising demands, climate change, and the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. While the urgency of this challenge is uncontested, water governance regimes still struggle to employ suitable responses. They lack of: taking a comprehensive perspective on water systems; focusing on social actors, their actions, needs, intentions, and norms as drivers of water systems; engaging in a discourse on tangible goals to provide direction for governance efforts; and promoting a comprehensive perspective on water sustainability that equally recognizes depletion, justice, and livelihood issues in the long-term. We present an approach that intends to overcome these limitations by putting the focus on what people do with water, and why, along with the impacts of these doings. First, we outline an integrated approach to water governance regimes, and then, we present a holistic set of principles by which to evaluate sustainable water governance. Solution-oriented research applying this approach integrates natural sciences and engineering perspectives on water systems with social science studies on water governance, while also specifying and applying normative principles for water sustainability. The approach we develop herein can be used to reform and innovate existing water governance regimes as well as stimulate transformative governance research.     

Modeling Water Resources and River-Aquifer Interaction in the Júcar River Basin,Spain

The paper presents how to solve some practical problems of water planning in a medium/large river basin, such as: the water resources assessment and its spatial-temporal variability over the long-short term, the impact of human activities on the water cycle, due to groundwater pumping and water returns into aquifers, the river-aquifer interactions and the aquifer depletion. It is based on the use of a new monthly conceptual distributed water balance model -PATRICAL- that includes the surface water (SW), groundwater (GW) behavior and the river-aquifer interaction. The model is applied to the Júcar River Basin District (RBD) in Spain (43,000 km²), with more than 250 aquifers, including catchments with humid climates (Júcar RBD northern), semiarid and arid catchments (southern). The model has a small number of parameters and obtains a satisfactory performance in SW and GW behavior. It has been calibrated/validated using monthly streamflows and two additional elements not generally used in models for large river basins, GW levels and river-aquifer interactions. In the hydrological time series of the Júcar RBD headers a statistical change point in the year 1979/80 is detected. It is due to changes in precipitation patterns and represents a 40 % of reduction in streamflows in relation with the previous period. The impact of GW pumping in all aquifers is determined, the ‘Mancha Oriental’ aquifer produces a significant reduction in streamflows of the Júcar river –around 200–250 hm³/year. The GW level in the ‘Villena-Benejama’ aquifer -Vinalopo Valley- has declined more than 200 m in last 30 years.     

Cost–Effectiveness Analysis of Water Management Measures in Two River Basins of Jordan and Lebanon

Chekka Bay area and Amman Zarqa Basin are two complex river basins in northern Lebanon and northern Jordan respectively. Both regions are faced with growing populations, urban development and land-use changes. They also both suffer from water-resource scarcity and contrasted seasons that threaten the perennity of sufficient water supply. Decision makers may have several water-management measures in response to the issue of water deficiency in their regions, but they need simple methods and criteria for ranking the alternatives with respect to their economical efficiency. In this paper, the Cost–Effectiveness Analysis method is used for supporting decisions to optimally combine water management measures at the river basin scale. Hydrologic and socio-economic data are used for assessing the future water balance and determine the sustainable management objectives. Both supply- and demand-side measures are investigated and compared. The analysis is based on two basic metrics to assess cost–effectiveness ratios: the average annualized and the marginal (or incremental) unit cost. The results show that the cost–effectiveness ranking of alternative measures strongly depends on the selected metric. The average annualized unit cost systematically favours large scaled water measures with high costs while the average incremental unit cost facilitates the selection of smaller and costless measures reflecting the time preference for water supply.     

Assessment of Water Availability and Consumption in the Karkheh River Basin,Iran—Using Remote Sensing and Geo-statistics

This study was conducted to assess water availability and consumption in the Karkheh River Basin in Iran using secondary data and freely available satellite data. Precipitation was estimated using geo-statistical techniques while a Surface Energy Balance approach was selected for evapotranspiration estimation. The spatial distribution of actual evapotranspiration (ET_a) for the Karkheh Basin has been estimated by use of 19 cloud free Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) images, which cover a complete cropping year from November 2002 to October 2003. ET_a estimates were compared to potential crop evapotranspiration (ET_p) estimates for two predominantly irrigated wheat areas in Upper and Lower Karkheh. Differences were found to be 12.5% and 11.7% respectively. Results of the ETa and precipitation estimates reveal that for the study period, the Karkheh Basin received 18,507 × 10⁶m³ as precipitation while ET_a is estimated at 16,680 × 10⁶m³. Estimated outflow from the basin for the study period only is 7.8% of the precipitation and indicates that water is a very scarce resource in the Karkheh basin. The basin has been divided in sub-basins to allow for more detailed analysis and results indicate that water balance closure at sub-basin scale ranges from 7.2% to 0.6% of the precipitation. This suggests that the water balance is sufficiently understood for policy and decision making.     

Monitoring and Assessment of Surface Water Abstractions for Pasture Irrigation from Landsat Imagery: Bega–Bemboka River,NSW, Australia

Irrigation of pasture forms the greatest single use of irrigation water in Australia yet there has been little monitoring of its spatial extent and water demands across southeast Australian coastal catchments where irrigated dairy farming forms an important rural livelihood. This paper provides an analysis of spatio-temporal patterns in the extent of irrigated pasture in the Bega–Bemboka catchment on the south coast of New South Wales from Landsat imagery, and establishes quantile regression relationships between metered monthly irrigation abstraction volumes, evaporation and rainfall. Over the metering period (2000–2007), annual water usage averages 4.8 ML ha^− 1 year^− 1, with January being the month of highest demand with an annualised usage of 10.4 ML ha^− 1 year^− 1. Analysis of Landsat imagery indicates that the spatial extent of irrigated pasture across the catchment has increased from 1266 ha in 1983 to 1842 ha by 2002, together with amalgamation of smaller holdings along less reliable streams into larger parcels along the trunk stream. Quantile regressions to estimate monthly mean and maximum abstraction volumes from monthly evaporation and rainfall data indicate that abstraction volumes are more closely correlated with evaporation. When combined with Landsat analyses of the spatial extent of irrigated areas, such relationships enable estimation of catchment-scale hydrological effects of irrigation abstractions that in turn can help guide regional-scale assessments of the ecological effects and sustainability of spatially and temporally changing irrigation abstraction volumes.     

Water Quality Assessment Using Multivariate Statistical Methods—A Case Study: Melen River System (Turkey)

This study is focused on water quality of Melen River (Turkey) and evaluation of 26 physical and chemical pollution data obtained five monitoring stations during the period 1995–2006. It presents the application of multivariate statistical methods to the data set, namely, principal component and factor analysis (PCA/FA), multiple regression analysis (MRA) and discriminant analysis (DA). The PCA/FA was employed to evaluate the high–low flow periods correlations of water quality parameters, while the principal factor analysis technique was used to extract the parameters that are most important in assessing high–low flow periods variations of river water quality. Latent factors were identified as responsible for data structure explaining 72–97% of the total variance of the each data sets. PCA/FA was supported with multiple regression analysis to determine the most important parameter in each factor. It examines the relation between a single dependent variable and a set of independent variables to best represent the relation in the each factor. Obtained important parameters provided us to determine the major pollution sources in Melen River Basin. So factors are conditionally named soil structure and erosion, domestic, municipal and industrial effluents, agricultural activities (fertilizer, irrigation water and livestock wastes), atmospheric deposition and seasonal effects factors. DA applied the data set to obtain the parameters responsible for temporal and spatial variations. Assessment of high–low flow period changes in surface water quality is an important aspect for evaluating temporal and spatial variations of river pollution. The aim of this study is illustration the usefulness of multivariate statistical analysis for evaluation of complex data sets, in Melen River water quality assessment identification of factors and pollution sources, for effective water quality management determination the spatial and temporal variations in water quality.     

Evaluation of the Bankruptcy Approach for Water Resources Allocation Conflict Resolution at Basin Scale,Iran’s Lake Urmia Experience

Water conflicts appear when there are insufficient and less available water resources than water demands claimed by different agents. In this study, a new bankruptcy approach is investigated to resolve water conflicts in the Zarrinehroud River Basin, the largest and most important sub-basin of Lake Urmia’s Basin in the northwest of Iran. The new bankruptcy method is compared with the proportional rule (PRO) and another alternative based on the cessation of irrigated agriculture in the region proposed to supply and save environmentally in danger Lake Urmia. Four scenarios consisting of the current situation, optimistic, average and pessimistic scenarios regarding the future of water resources of the basin and agricultural developments were considered. According to the results, both bankruptcy rules helped Lake Urmia to receive more water, but neither could utterly overcome the water shortage of the Lake, so can be used as supplementary actions alongside other solutions. The cessation of irrigated agriculture throughout the basin overcame the average annual shortage of Lake Urmia in the first and second scenarios equal to 137 and 148 million cubic meters respectively. It showed disability to fully supply the lake in the third and fourth scenarios. These three methods must be combined with a social-economic policy like the purchase of decreased water allocations to farmers to be socially acceptable.     

Water Resources Development in the SãTo Francisco River Basin (Brazil): Conflicts and Management Perspectives

Abstract

Water scarcity is matter of growing concern in Brazil, especially in the semi-arid, inland area of the Northeast, where the São Francisco River flows. This paper concentrates on the relations between the concrete experience of water resources development and the remaining demands for efficient water management in that river basin. The emphasis is on its Sub-Middle section, which since 1948 has been the preferential area for irrigation projects and hydropower generation. Recent modifications in the Brazilian legislation provide for a new approach to water resources policy, which is in favor of more decentralized and proactive forms of water management. In spite of such institutional evolution, conservative political groups in the SãTo Francisco River Basin have put obstacles before the transformation of established practices. In addition, there are other structural limitations contributing to hinder the adoption of a more comprehensive framework of water management. Resulting water conflicts have raised increasing demands for proper attention to the social, economic and environmental requirements of the sustainable management of water. The requisites for that go beyond the water question itself because they involve broader political and socio-economic controversies. At the local level, priority must be given to measures aimed at achieving water efficiency and conservation. It is fundamental to address the reduction of human vulnerability to climatic risks and to adopt alternatives of better utilization of water resources     

Mobility of 2,2’,5,5’-Tetrachlorobiphenyl in Model Systems Containing Bottom Sediments and Water from the Lower Fox River,Wisconsin

Sediment-water partitioning and diffusive transport of 2,2’,5,5’-tetrachlorobiphenyl, PCB congener IUPAC #52 (TCB52) were examined in laboratory experiments with sediments from two sites in the lower Fox River, Wisconsin. Native water was pumped at controlled flow rates through cells containing sediments amended with a known activity of carbon-14-labeled TCB52. Concentrations of TCB52 in water and sediments were determined by liquid scintillation measurements of carbon-14 activity. Sediment-water partitioning was independent of flow rate for rates up to 8 m/d. Distribution coefficients (K_d) and soil-sorption coefficients (K_oc) were found to be at maximum levels 5–10 cm below the surface, despite an absence of significant variation in the fraction of organic carbon (f_oc) through the same profile. Other factors, such as the effects of colloids and microbial activity in the sediments, are likely to be important in controlling the PCB distribution. Log K_d and log K_oc ranges were 4.1–4.9 and 5.3–6.1, respectively, and calculated effective diffusivities at the sediment-water interface ranged from 3 to 8 × 10⁻¹⁰ cm²/s. Gradual increases with time in TCB52 concentrations in the water phase, possibly due to effects of microbial activity, were observed. Diffusion experiments and models showed that the TCB52 migration rate within the sediment column is 8-9 mm/yr.     

Impact Assessment of Different Management Scenarios on Water Quality of Porsuk River and Dam System – Turkey

Porsuk Dam Reservoir (PDR), which is located on Porsuk River, is the main drinking water resource of Eskisehir City-Turkey. Both the river and the reservoir are under the threat of several domestic and industrial point sources and land-based diffuse pollution. The river water quality is very poor with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds at the entrance to Porsuk Reservoir. The reservoir shows symptoms of a hypertrophic lake. The expected responses of the whole river and reservoir system under different pollution control scenarios were estimated to develop plausible water quality management strategies. The adopted scenarios assumed different levels of treatment for the major domestic point sources that include conventional treatment and tertiary treatment. The contemporary Turkish Allowable Discharge Limits (ADLs) and the best available technology choices were the investigated treatment options for the major industries. The expected improvements of water quality characteristics under the management scenario options have been estimated by means of mathematical models. The model choices were the QUAL2E for the river and BATHTUB for the reservoir. Recommendations for different levels of treatment were derived in order to improve the water quality both within the river and in the reservoir.     

Assessment of the Total Factor Productivity Change in the English and Welsh Water Industry: a Färe-Primont Productivity Index Approach

The assessment of productivity change across companies and over time is of great importance for water utilities managers and regulators. In this paper, for the first time, we apply the Färe-Primont productivity index (FPI) to evaluate the productivity change for the 10 water and sewerage companies (WaSCs) and 12 water only companies (WoCs) in England and Wales during the years 2001–2008. The FPI is the only index that without price data allows making comparisons involving many firms and many periods. The results indicate that during the years 2001–2004 productivity improved which was mainly attributed to gains in efficiency whereas technical change remained constant, the exception being the year 2004. During the years 2005–2008 productivity showed a declining trend and any gains in efficiency were lost to the highly negative technical change on productivity growth. From a policy perspective, it has been illustrated the importance of using a reliable index to compute the productivity change of water companies when the performance of companies is used to set water tariffs. Finally, the decomposition of productivity change into several drivers allows water utilities and managers to identify the main factors on which they should act to improve productivity of the company.     

WEAP21—A Demand-, Priority-, and Preference-Driven Water Planning Model

Abstract

The Water Evaluation and Planning Version 21 (WEAP21) Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) model seamlessly integrates water supplies generated through watershed-scale hydrologic processes with a water management model driven by water demands and environmental requirements and is governed by the natural watershed and physical network of reservoirs, canals, and diversions. This version (WEAP21) extends the previous WEAP model by introducing the concept of demand priorities and supply preferences, which are used in a linear programming heuristic to solve the water allocation problem as an alternative to multi-criteria weighting or rule-based logic approaches. WEAP21 introduces a transparent set of model objects and procedures that can be used to analyze a full range of issues faced by water planners through a scenario-based approach. These issues include climate variability and change, watershed condition, anticipated demands, ecosystem needs, the regulatory environment, operational objectives, and available infrastructure.     

Water Quantity and Quality in the Zerafshan River Basin: Only an Upstream Riparian Problem?

In discussing the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention, McCaffrey (1998) gave a theoretical example of the late-developer problem. This paper complements that theoretical example with a real case study of the Zerafshan basin in Central Asia. While McCaffrey addressed the water quantity issue in his example, the focus here also includes water pollution. The aim of the paper is to analyze some of the provisions of the mechanisms in the field of international water law—the Helsinki Rules and the UN Watercourses Convention—for water quantity and quality aspects, as well as to provide an insight into the basin regarding these two aspects.     

Correction to: Analysis of Water Quantity and Quality Trade‑Offs to Inform Selective Harvesting of Inflows in Complex Water Resource Systems

Water Resources Management -