Logistics cost analysis of rice straw for biomass power generation in Thailand

The logistics of the fuel supply have a large impact on the economy of a biomass power generation facility, especially for low density biomass fuels like straw. A detailed cost analysis of a typical rice straw logistics process for two baling options in three regions of Thailand shows that the costs for all logistics operations vary from a minimum of 18.75 USD/t for small rectangular bales in the Northern region of Thailand to maximum 19.89 USD/t for large rectangular bales in the North-eastern region. The difference in costs is not very significant due to the higher ownership and operating costs of the equipment for using large rectangular bales; however, the specific fuel consumption cost is substantially lower by around 17.5% and a total transport cost reduction is about 31.5%. Analysis of the logistics economies of scale for projected power plant capacities of 2-35 MW_e showed that each doubling the capacity of the energy facility increases the specific costs of the logistics operations only by around 4% in all regions.     

Influence of biomass addition on electricity harvesting from solid phase microbial fuel cells

In this study, two types of biomass (Acorus calamus leaves and wheat straw) were added to a matrix of sediment and soil inside the anode of solid phase microbial fuel cells (SMFCs) in order to increase their output power. SMFC containing 3% leaves in their sediment had a maximum power density of 195 mW m⁻² in contrast to 4.6 mW m⁻² of that SMFC without leaves. Similarly, SMFC containing 1% wheat straw in their soil environment had a maximum power density of 167 mW m⁻². It suggests that the addition of biomass in appropriate proportions increases contact opportunities between the matrix, the anode and the added biomass, increases organic matter content, and enhances cellulase activity, thus serving as an important method for enhancing output power in SMFCs.     

Biofuel and petroleum-based fuel supply chain research: A literature review

During the last decade, countries around the world - especially the U.S., Brazil, and many in Europe - have worked to accelerate the commercialization of a biofuel industry. As pilot plant studies for the second-generation biofuel (e.g., cellulosic biofuel) currently seek to determine the most viable feedstocks and processing technologies, it is an opportune time to formulate operations research (OR) models of the biofuel supply chain (SC) so they might be used to implement the technologies that prove to be most promising. This paper provides a literature review of research on the biofuel SC. It classifies prior research according to decision time frame (i.e., strategic, tactical, operational, and integrated) as well as level in the supply chain (i.e., upstream, midstream, and downstream). In addition, it reviews related research on agri-products, which have some commonalities relative to harvesting and perishability; petroleum-based fuels, which have some commonalities related to distribution (some biofuels can be mixed with gasoline but others cannot); and generic supply chains, which provide some applicable modeling structures. Finally, this paper emphasizes unique needs to support decisions that integrate the farm with commercial levels (e.g., storage, pre-processing, refining, and distribution) and identifies fertile avenues for future research on the biofuel supply chain. OR models are needed to help assure the economic viability of the biofuel industry. They can be used by growers, processors, and distributors to design and manage an integrated system and by government to inform policies needed to stimulate the growth of the industry and, perhaps, subsidize it.     

Harvest storage and handling of round and square bales of giant reed and switchgrass: An economic and technical evaluation

This study evaluated an innovative collection system for biomass based on single-pass harvesting to reduce handling and storage costs. Trials were conducted on two herbaceous perennials: giant reed (Arundo donax L.) and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.). A technical and economic evaluation compared two single-pass harvesting systems in which the biomass was cut-shredded-baled in the same operation. The two systems were composed of a Nobili biotriturator (for biomass shredding and windrowing) front-mounted on a 4-wheel-drive tractor and two types of balers: a KUHN VB2160 round baler and a KUHN LSB 1290 large square baler. Costs of harvesting, handling, storage and delivery to the conversion plant were evaluated. Three distances of delivering were considered (0–20; 20–40; 40–60 km). It was estimated that the harvesting system could produce round bales of switchgrass and giant reed stored in-field under a plastic tarp at a cost of 22.3 € Mg⁻¹ and 23.3 € Mg⁻¹ dry and square bales at 26.0 € Mg⁻¹ and 21.7 € Mg⁻¹ for switchgrass and giant reed respectively. The costs of harvesting, handling, in-field storage and delivery to the conversion plant amounted to 43.7 € Mg⁻¹ and 45.7 € Mg⁻¹ dry for round bales and 43.1 € Mg⁻¹ dry and 34.9 € Mg⁻¹ for square bales of switchgrass and giant reed for delivery distances of less than 20 km.     

Evaluation of two round baling systems for harvesting understory biomass

The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance and to estimate costs of two round baling systems for harvesting understory biomass. One system was a cutter-shredder-baler prototype (Bio-baler). The other system required two successive operations. The first operation was cutting and shredding with a Supertrak tractor equipped with a Fecon mulcher head. The second operation was baling with a Claas baler. The machines were evaluated in three different pine stands on the Osceola National Forest in Florida, United States. Data collection included time study, fuel consumption and bale measurements. Material was collected from a sample of bales for heat and moisture content determination. On the most representative site (Site 2), the Bio-baler recovered 8.05 green t ha⁻¹ while the mulcher and the Claas baler recovered 9.75 green t ha⁻¹ (43 and 52 percent of original understory biomass, respectively). Productivity was 0.30 ha h⁻¹ for the Bio-baler and 0.51 ha h⁻¹ for the Claas baler. Density of the bales was 321 green kg m⁻³ for the Bio-baler and 373 green kg m⁻³ for the Claas baler. Average net heat content was 6263 MJ bale⁻¹ for the Bio-baler and 6695 MJ bale⁻¹ for the Claas baler with biomass containing 38 percent of moisture content on a wet basis. Cost per unit area was less with the Bio-baler (US$320.91 ha⁻¹) than with the mulcher-baler system (US$336.62-US$596.77 ha⁻¹).     

关于降低内燃机车燃油消耗和维修费用加速代用燃料发动机开发的探讨和建议

从发展内燃机车燃油替代品、降低现有内燃机车的维修费用两个方面进行了探讨，并提出了建议。     

Reed canary grass yield and fuel quality in Estonian farmers’ fields

Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) is one of the possible raw materials for bioenergy production in northern Europe. Its cultivation is favoured because its high productivity and local origin. However, problems with the biomass quality for combustion have been reported. Usually delayed harvest in spring is suggested to improve the quality and decrease the moisture content of biomass. On the other hand, the feasibility of spring harvest depends on local climatic conditions and may cause yield losses. In current paper we studied reed canary grass fields in Estonia locating on different soil types and cultivated with various varieties. The influence of several fertilisation schemes on biomass yield was analysed. Our results indicated that production was higher on mineral soils than on the organic soil of abandoned peat extraction sites. Even different types of fertilisation did not increase the production on organic soils to the level comparable to those on mineral soils. Among studied varieties ‘Venture’ had the highest production. The highest yield per area was obtained late in the autumn (12.7 t d.w. per ha and 7.2 t d.w. per ha on mineral and organic soils, respectively). By spring the amount of biomass had decreased in all studied sites. Due to wet soil some of the fields remained unharvested, the others had high yield losses during practical harvesting. The chemical analyses did not reveal significant differences in the composition of biomass between late autumn and spring. Therefore we conclude that late autumn harvest should be preferred in local climatic conditions.     

Eco-driving training and fuel consumption: Impact,heterogeneity and sustainability

In this paper, we assess the impact of an eco-driving training session on fuel consumption using panel data. A random coefficient model is estimated to measure the effect of the course over a ten-month period, controlling for confounding factors and individual heterogeneity. We find that eco-driving training induced average city and highway fuel consumption reductions of 4.6% and 2.9% respectively. The effects are highly heterogeneous between individuals, with standard deviations of about 5%. Drivers' socio-demographic characteristics are not helpful to explain these discrepancies but we find that drivers of vehicles with manual transmissions achieve significantly larger reductions: 10% on city roads and 8% on highways. Finally, we show that reductions faded gradually after the course. City reductions go from 4.6% to 2.5% within ten months. Highway fuel use decreases average 3.5% in the first ten weeks after the course but become statistically insignificant after about thirty weeks. Overall, the average impact translates into an annual fuel saving cost of about 60$ per driver.     

Brash bale production on a clear-felled farm forest and comminution of bales to a biomass energy fuel

Utilising logging residues (termed brash in the UK) for energy production has become a focus for energy providers since the development of specialist baling machinery to improve the logistical and financial potential of this material. To explore a farm-scale operations scenario, brash from a mixed conifer, temperate zone forest was baled and chipped with commercial machinery to produce fuel-grade woodchip. Clear-fell logging procedures presented a range of brash configurations to facilitate baling machinery to produce compacted, tied, regular sized bales. Average hourly bale production and fresh weight tonnage output was 28 ± 2 bales/h and 12.4 t/h respectively. Extraction of bales and stacking along access road verges achieved an average 24 ± 2 bales/h. Woodchipping output averaged 11.8, 13.7 and 13.0 green t/h respectively for whole bale, log only and bale-log composite woodchip. Chipping production efficiency was affected by bale condition, handling and machinery performance but chiefly by site transport accessibility and logistical planning. The average total cost of in-farm delivered fuel quality woodchip product from brash bales was £25.22 (€29.67) per green tonne. Brash bale chips contained more than double the percentage of fines <6.3 mm compared to round log woodchips and also had significantly higher gross energy and nutrients content. Brash bale moisture content was observed to fluctuate widely and nutrients and energy content reduced during the 3-yr monitoring period. In conclusion, the combination of equipment and the confined production scenario was a viable process that provided fuel-grade woodchip at relatively low cost.     

Biomass power cost and optimum plant size in western Canada

The power cost and optimum plant size for power plants using three biomass fuels in western Canada were determined. The three fuels are biomass from agricultural residues (grain straw), whole boreal forest, and forest harvest residues from existing lumber and pulp operations (limbs and tops). Forest harvest residues have the smallest economic size, 137 MW, and the highest power cost, $63.00 MWh⁻¹ (Year 2000 US$). The optimum size for agricultural residues is 450 MW (the largest single biomass unit judged feasible in this study), and the power cost is $50.30 MWh⁻¹. If a larger biomass boiler could be built, the optimum project size for straw would be 628 MW. Whole forest harvesting has an optimum size of 900 MW (two maximum sized units), and a power cost of $47.16 MWh⁻¹ without nutrient replacement. However, power cost versus size from whole forest is essentially flat from 450 MW ($47.76 MWh⁻¹) to 3150 MW ($48.86 MWh⁻¹), so the optimum size is better thought of as a wide range.

None of these projects are economic today, but could become so with a greenhouse gas credit. All biomass cases show some flatness in the profile of power cost vs. plant capacity. This occurs because the reduction in capital cost per unit capacity with increasing capacity is offset by increasing biomass transportation cost as the area from which biomass is drawn increases. This in turn means that smaller than optimum plants can be built with only a minor cost penalty. Both the yield of biomass per unit area and the location of the biomass have an impact on power cost and optimum size. Agricultural and forest harvest residues are transported over existing road networks, whereas the whole forest harvest requires new roads and has a location remote from existing transmission lines. Nutrient replacement in the whole forest case would make power from the forest comparable in cost to power from straw.     

燃油密度对机车燃油消耗的影响

1概述 上海机务段2002年1季度燃油消耗1916t,燃油单耗33.87kg/(万tkm);2003年1季度燃油消耗21030t,燃油单耗34.53kg/(万tkm),同期相比,略有增加,具体机车单耗情况如表1所列.     

An integrated Multi-Regional Input-Output (MRIO) Analysis of miscanthus biomass production in France: Socio-economic and climate change consequences

Several European policies have been designed over the last decades to address the challenge of climate change and several measures have been put in place to accelerate the development and deployment of cost-effective low carbon technologies. The domestic nature of the resource and its great potential availability in Europe make biomass conversion technologies relevant mitigation options to be considered. In this context, the project “Logistics for Energy Crops Biomass (LogistEC)” aims to develop new or improve technologies of biomass logistics chain. In this project, the sustainability of different types of biomass is analysed in terms of environmental, economic and social impacts, based on the supply chain of two existing plants. The objective of this paper is to present the main results obtained in the socio-economic analysis of the French case and its climate change consequences. The Input-Output Analysis (IOA) has been seen as the most appropriate method to estimate these impacts using a Multiregional Input-Output Table from the World Input-Output Database project. Socio-economic effects have been estimated in terms of additional economic activity, added value and job creation. By extending the IOA with environmental accounts, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have also been estimated. Additionally, the most stimulated sectors have been identified. Results highlight the importance of biomass at a national level.     

The cost of hydrogen from coal

Isolation of the hydrogen and oxygen plants from the rest of the liquefaction complex, combined with appropriate transfer costs for all utilities and raw materials has been used to estimate the value of hydrogen. For the five alternatives, minimum cost hydrogen is produced by gasification of coal at 1000 psia. 500 psia gasification of coal yielded slightly more expensive hydrogen; however, on an equivalent mole basis of hydrogen, they were virtually the same. As would be expected, the cost of coal, discount cash flow rate and method of costing supplemental fuel needs were the primary variables affecting the cost of hydrogen. Hydrogen cost ranged from $0·847/1000 standard cubic feet to $2·986/1000 standard cubic feet.     

Experimental study on oxygen-enriched combustion of biomass micro fuel

The oxygen-enriched combustion of biomass micro fuel (BMF) was carried out respectively in the thermogravimetric analyzer and cyclone furnace to evaluate the effects of oxygen concentration on combustion performance. The experimental results show that with the increasing oxygen concentration, the volatile releasing temperature, ignition temperature and burnout temperature were decreasing. Oxygen-enriched atmosphere subtracts burning time and improves combustion activity of biomass micro fuel. Oxygen-enriched atmosphere improves the combustion temperature of BMF in cyclone furnace; while the improvement is weaken as oxygen concentration is above 40%.     

The real cost of nuclear electricity in the UK

The detailed capital costs of the power stations for which CEGB provided comparative costs statistics in Appendix 3 of its 1979/80 Report, have become available in answer to a Parliamentary Question. Inflation corrected cost figures, calculated from these new data, support the conclusion of the previous approximate calculations, that the real cost of electricity from nuclear stations is greater than that for coal-fired stations. A previously unrecognized effect of inflation on nuclear fuel costs, together with the escalation of reprocessing costs, enhances this difference. An explanation and criticism of the CEGB's NEC calculation shows that this cost advantage to coal-fired stations is likely to be at least as great in the future. The amazing effects of Current Cost Accounting in the 1980/81 CEGB Report are commented on in an Appendix.     

A case study on the costs and the fuel consumption of harvesting,transporting, and chipping chains for logging residues in Japan

The objective of this study is to examine the feasibility of a harvesting and transporting system for logging residues including the cost, energy, and carbon dioxide (CO₂) effectiveness of fossil energy substitution with logging residues in Japan. “A harvesting and transporting system for logging residues” was constructed with reference to some European countries, where the utilization of bioenergy is making steady progress, and examined based on field experiments in Japanese forestry. The feasibility of the system was discussed from the standpoints of cost, energy, and CO₂, and the system was compared with those of European countries. Concerning the system, it is desirable that the process of chipper comminuting should be incorporated into the system as early as possible. Although such a system is not particularly feasible in Japan from the standpoint of cost, it is suggested that it should be possible for Japan to reduce the domestic CO₂ emissions by utilizing logging residues as alternative energy resources. A comparison with the European countries and a preliminary sensitivity analysis to the system demonstrate that the technical development to reduce the total cost, e.g., improving the forwarding and transporting efficiency, is essential for realizing bioenergy utilization in Japan.     

Technoeconomic assessment of ethanol production via thermochemical conversion of biomass by entrained flow gasification

The production of ethanol via entrained flow gasification of biomass and subsequent catalytic synthesis is economically assessed by considering current and future scenarios. In the current scenarios, the process plants proposed only make use of available technologies and state-of-the-art mixed alcohol catalysts (Rh-Mn/SiO₂ and KCoMoS₂ catalysts). In the future scenarios, the effects of improvements in MoS₂ catalyst performance and the availability of pressurized solid biomass feeding systems are assessed. A plant size of 2140 dry tonnes/day of wood chip (500 MW_th) is considered with the criteria of being energy self-sufficient. The economic results are discussed and also compared with state-of-the-art production of biochemical lignocellulosic ethanol.The results reveal that although the Rhodium catalyst presents better performance than MoS₂ catalysts in terms of selectivity to ethanol, the high price of the Rhodium catalyst leads to higher production costs. For current catalysts, the minimum ethanol selling price (including 10% rate of return) is in the range of 0.90-1.25 $/L. In a future scenario, expected improvements in MoS₂ catalyst performance would lead to a decrease in price to 0.71 $/L. Besides, if biomass piston feeders were commercially available, as an alternative for flash pyrolysis pre-treatment, the minimum ethanol selling price would decrease to 0.55 $/L.     

Technical and economical evaluation of enhanced biomass to liquid fuel processes

‘Enhanced Biomass-to-Liquid’ (EBtL) refers to BtL processes (biomass gasification and liquid fuel synthesis) with a significant increase in fuel production by means of external energy inputs. The conversion yield of biomass carbon into fuel carbon is multiplied by a factor of 3 in comparison with existing (autothermal) gasification processes. The technical options of such processes are outlined and evaluated in the paper: the production cost is estimated between 0.7 and 1.2 €/litre diesel.     

Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest fuel production and harvesting: A review of current standards for sustainable forest management

Forest biomass is increasingly being considered as a source of sustainable energy. It is crucial, however, that this biomass be grown and harvested in a sustainable manner.International processes and certification systems have been developed to ensure sustainable forest management (SFM) in general, but it is important to consider if they adequately address specific impacts of intensified production and harvesting methods related to forest fuels. To explore how existing SFM frameworks address sustainable forest fuel production, criteria and indicators (C&I) from 10 different international processes and organizations and 157 international, national and sub-national forest management certification standards under the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) were reviewed. International processes include indicators that require identification or reporting of availability, harvested amounts, value, or share in energy consumption of forest fuels. Forest certification standards address several specific woodfuel issues, but not always in a consistent manner. It seems that developed countries more frequently address environmental consequences of harvesting residues or whole trees on soil fertility and biodiversity, while developing countries more frequently address social issues, such as local people’s access to firewood and working conditions in charcoal production. Based on findings, options to improve SFM standards for sustainable forest fuel production are discussed. These options include clarification of terminology, systematic inclusion of important management impacts unique to forest fuel production, coordination of efforts with other related governance processes, including tools promoting sustainability at more integrated levels, such as landscape, supply chain and global levels.     

Production and spatial distribution of switchgrass and miscanthus in the United States under uncertainty and sunk cost

The U.S. cellulosic biofuel mandate has not been enforced in recent years. Uncertainty surrounding the enforcement of the mandate in addition to high production and harvest cost have contributed to a delay in the widespread planting of bioenergy crops such as switchgrass and miscanthus. Previous literature has shown that under uncertainty and sunk cost, an investment threshold is further increased due to the value associated from holding the investment option. In this paper, we extend the previous literature by applying a real option switching model to bioenergy crop production. First, we calculate the county-level break-even price which triggers a switching away from traditional field crops (corn, soybeans, and wheat) to bioenergy crops under various scenarios differing by commodity prices, production cost and biomass price expectations. We show that the resulting break-even prices at the county-level can be substantially higher than previously estimated due to the inclusion of the option value. In a second step, we identify counties that are most likely to grow switchgrass or miscanthus by simulating a stochastic biomass price over time. Our results highlight two issues: First, switchgrass or miscanthus are not grown in the Midwest under any scenario. Under low agricultural residue removal rates, biomass crops are mostly grown in the Southeast. Second, under the assumption of a high removal rates, bioenergy crops are not grown anywhere in the U.S. since the cellulosic biofuel mandate can be covered by agricultural residues.