Effects of sorbed water on crack propagation in poly(methyl methacrylate) under static tensile stress

Effects of sorbed water on crack propagation in poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) under static tensile stress have been investigated. The specimens were kept for more than two years in temperature and humidity-controlled conditions. Sorbed water of less than 0.40 wt% scarcely affected K _Ith value (threshold stress intensity factor for crack propagation), however, K _Ith value for the specimens containing water of more than 0.40 wt% increased with the amount of sorbed water. K _Ith values related to the balance among the radius of the curvature of crack tip, crazing stress and craze fibril rupture stress, which are functions of the amount of sorbed water. At a crack propagation rate of more than 1 × 10^–7 m/s, the slopes of K-da/dt curves for the specimens containing water less than 0.40 wt% were gentle, however, that for the specimens containing more than 0.40 wt% was steep; and unstably fractured. It was found that the gentler slopes for the specimens containing little sorbed water may be caused by craze-shear controlled crack propagation mechanisms, while the steeper slopes for the other specimens may be caused by a craze controlled crack propagation mechanism.     

Dynamic crack propagation behaviour of rubber-toughened poly(methyl methacrylate)

Dynamic crack propagation has been studied in detail for a series of transparent rubber-toughened samples of poly(methyl methacrylate) using a combination of high-speed photography and the optical method of transmitted caustics. The dynamic stress intensity factor has been measured as a function of rubber content, crack length and loading rate. The dynamic stress intensity factor is found to increase significantly as the rubber content increases, which is consistent with the improvement in impact behaviour found on the addition of rubber particles. It is proposed that the toughening takes place through crack tip blunting caused by localized shear yielding induced by the presence of the rubber particles.     

Some recent results on crack healing of poly(methyl methacrylate)

The solvent healing and void growth of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) at elevated temperatures were studied. In addition to entanglement between two or more broken polymeric chains, the chemical bonds between two polymeric broken chains were produced during healing in methanol or d₁-methanol. Cracks in PMMA were induced either by Nd-YAG laser irradiation or by acetone immersion. The solvents occupied the voids enclosed by polymeric chains. The chemical bonds and structure were analyzed with FTIR and NMR spectroscopy. The results show that in addition to mechanical lock of broken chains, hydrogen bond increases with uptake of solvent which enhances the crack healing. The cylindrical crack in PMMA was healed at temperatures 110-160 °C and spherical void was grown at temperatures 170-190 °C. This suggests that annealing above the glass transition temperature of polymer is a necessary condition for thermal healing, but not for the sufficient condition.     

Influence of temperature on the fracture rib spacing of poly (methyl methacrylate)

Journal of Materials Science -     

Strain and stress mapping by mechanochemical activation of spiropyran in poly(methyl methacrylate)

The relationship between fracture‐induced mechanophore activation and the strain and stress ahead of a propagating crack in poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is studied. The mechanophore spiropyran is used as a secondary cross‐linker in rubber toughened PMMA, and the spiropyran‐linked material is subjected to fracture testing. Mechanophore activation is detected and analysed by fluorescence imaging. Digital image correlation is used to measure the strain field ahead of the crack tip, whereas the corresponding stress field is calculated using the Hutchinson–Rice–Rosengren singularity field equations. Mechanophore activation follows a power law dependence on distance from the crack tip and provides both a qualitative and quantitative measure of the strain and stress fields ahead of the crack.     

Influence of heterogeneities on crack propagation

The influence of material heterogeneities is studied in the context of dynamic failure. We consider a pre-strained plate problem, the homogeneous case of which has been widely studied both experimentally and numerically. This setup is used to isolate the effects of the elastic field resulting from pre-straining and stress wave interactions throughout the crack propagation by adding stiffer and denser regions in the plate. While the crack tip is pushed away by stiffer inclusions, it is attracted to the denser ones. With the presence of denser media, only a portion of the total elastic energy in the system is effectively used to drive crack propagation, leading to a drop in the velocity of its tip in comparison to the homogeneous case. Crack branching is then observed at velocities much lower than the limiting velocity of the material, questioning the validity of crack velocity to be a criterion for crack branching. Instead, we introduce an effective stored energy to analyze the crack velocity and the emergence of crack branching instabilities.     

Fatigue mechanisms in poly (methyl methacrylate) at threshold: effects of molecular weight and mean stress

Fatigue tests were conducted on three linear poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) resins having weight average molecular weights (M _w) of 82 000, 205 000 and 390000 and on a fourth, cross-linked sample (M _c=3337 g mol^–1). Fatigue threshold test conditions included a constant load ratio (R ^c=0.1) and a constant maximum stress intensity level (K _max ^c =0.52 MPa m^1/2). TheR ^c=0.1 test results demonstrated that fatigue resistance increased with increasingM _w, and that the cross-linked sample possessed a higher fatigue threshold than the linear Iow-M_w material. However, the K _max ^c test results revealed the opposite trend, with fatigue resistance decreasing with increasingM _w and chemical crosslinking. The marked change in relative fatigue resistance of the PMMA resins investigated under high mean stress conditions is believed to be a consequence of the competition between two molecular deformation mechanisms: chain scission and chain slippage. The presumed shift in operative mechanism as a function of theR level is reflected in differences noted on the fracture surfaces of the PMMA resins studied. Discontinuous growth band formation, which is indicative of large amounts of chain slippage, is favoured by lowM _w and lowR ratios, but disappears in association with high-M _w and highR-ratio test conditions.     

Influence of effective stress intensity factor range on mixed mode fatigue crack propagation

ABSTRACT The behaviour of fatigue crack propagation of rectangular spheroidal graphite cast iron plates, each consisting of an inclined semi‐elliptical crack, subjected to axial loading was investigated both experimentally and theoretically. The inclined angle of the crack with respect to the axis of loading varied between 0° and 90°. In the present investigation, the growth of the fatigue crack was monitored using the AC potential drop technique, and a series of modification factors, which allow accurate sizing of such defects, is recommended. The rate of fatigue crack propagation db/dN is postulated to be a function of the effective strain energy density factor range, ΔS_eff. Subsequently, this concept is applied to predict crack growth due to fatigue loads. The mixed mode crack growth criterion is discussed by comparing the experimental results with those obtained using the maximum stress and minimum strain energy density criteria. The threshold condition for nongrowth of the initial crack is established based on the experimental data.     

Preparation of hydroxyapatite/poly(methyl methacrylate) and calcium silicate/poly(methyl methacrylate) interpenetrating hybrid composites

Hydroxyapatite/poly(methyl methacrylate) (HAp/PMMA) and calcium silicate/poly(methyl methacrylate) (CS/PMMA) composites were prepared by interpenetrating bulk polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomer in porous structures of HAp and CS. The porous HAp and CS templates were prepared by mixing their calcined powders with poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) solution, shaping by uniaxial pressing and then firing at 1,100 °C for HAp and 900 °C for CS. The templates were soaked in the solution mixture of MMA monomer and 0.1 mol% of benzoyl peroxide (BPO) for 24 h. The pre-composites were then bulk polymerized at 85 °C for 24 h under nitrogen atmosphere. The microstructures of the composites showed the interpenetrating of PMMA into the porous HAp and CS structures. Thermogravimetric analysis indicated that the PMMA content in the HAp/PMMA and CS/PMMA composites were 13 and 26 wt%, respectively. Weight average molecular weights ( ) of PMMA were about 491,000 for HAp/PMMA composites and about 348,000 for CS/PMMA composites. Compressive strengths of these composites were about 90–131 MPa in which they were significantly higher than their starting porous templates.     

Blends of poly(methyl methacrylate) and polyamides

The morphology of PMMA blends with different polyamides (PA-6, 6/9 and 12) was investigated by transmission electron microscopy, recognizing PA-6/PMMA as the most miscible pair. Blends of these polymers were prepared from solutions in m-cresol and formic acid and the morphology was highly dependent on the solvent. The morphology and the segregation degree of extruded PA-6/PMMA blends was investigated by scanning electron microscopy and dynamic-mechanical analysis. The compatibilization succeeded by the introduction of a block copolymer of polyamide and poly(ethylene oxide).     

Crack propagation and crack arrest in stress gradients

Eshelby's and Freund's solutions for the arbitrary motion of a crack have been applied to the propagation and arrest of cracks in stress gradients in infinite and semi-infinite plates. It has been shown that for an embedded crack with one end moving the dynamic stress intensity factor can be greater than for a static crack of the same length and loading. Such a crack thus arrests at a length greater than would be predicted by a static analysis. However, with edge cracks, which are of greater practical importance, the dynamic stress intensity factor is less than the static value, and crack arrest can occur at crack lengths shorter than would be predicted from a static analysis, although, if the fracture toughness for crack arrest is very similar to the toughness for reinitiation of crack propagation, the crack can propagate further after the arrival of reflected waves at the crack tip, and the point where the crack finally stops will approach that given from a static analysis. Thus provided the arrest toughness can be properly identified, a static analysis gives a conservative answer for the arrest of an edge crack, but not for the arrest of an embedded crack.

---

Résumé On présente l'application des solutions d'Eshelby et de Freund à la mouvement arbitraire d'une fissure à la propagation et l'arrête d'une fissure dans les gradients de la contrainte dans les plaques infinies et semi-infinies. On a démontré que dans le cas de la mouvement d'une extremité d'une fissure centrale le facteur d'intensité des contraintes peut être plus grand que la valeur de celui d'une fissure statique, et ainsi la fissure s'arrêtera à une longueur plus grande que ce qu'on prédirait d'une calculation statique. Cependant les facteurs dynamiques d'intensité des contraintes des fissures latérales, qui dans la pratique sont plus importantes, sont plus grands que les valeurs statiques, et une fissure peut s'arrêter à une longueur moins de cela qu'on prédirait d'une calculation statique, mais si la tenacité à l'arrête et la tenacité à la recommencement de la propagation ne sont pas très différentes, la fissure peut se propager plus loin après l'arrivée des ondes de contrainte à l'extremité de la fissure, et le point final de l'arrête se trouvera près du point, qu'on prédirait d'une calculation statique. Ainsi pourvu qu'on puisse déterminer correctement la tenacité à l'arrête, une calculation statique prédirait un resultat conservatif pour l'arrête d'une fissure latérale, mais prédirait une longueur trop petite pour l'arrête d'une fissure centrale.

     

Mechanical behaviour of poly(methyl methacrylate)

A series of tensile and three-point bending studies was conducted at various temperatures and loading rates using a commercial poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). Tensile properties and fracture toughness data were obtained for the various conditions. In general, both tensile strength and fracture toughness increase with increasing loading rate and decreasing temperatur E. However, when the temperature reaches the glass transition region, the relationships between fracture toughness, loading rate, and temperature become very complex. This behaviour is due to the simultaneous interaction of viscoelasticity and localized plastic deformation. In the glass transition region, the fracture mechanism changes from a brittle to a ductile mode of failure. A failure envelope constructed from tensile tests suggests that the maximum elongation that the glassy PMMA can withstand without failure is about 130%. The calculated apparent activation energies suggest that the failure process of thermoplastic polymers (at least PMMA) follows a viscoelastic process, either glass or transition. The former is the case if crack initiation is required.Deceased.     

Infrared and near-infrared spectral evidence for water clustering in highly hydrated poly(methyl methacrylate)

First, we developed quantitative analytical methods of water in poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) in various hydrated states by utilizing the first combination and OH stretching bands of water at about 5240 and 3630 cm-1, respectively. Next, we investigated how the state of water depended on its quantity or the mole ratio of water to the CO (denoted as the H2O/CO ratio), which only interacts with water in PMMA, mainly on the basis of the band feature of the OH stretching bands. Below the H2O/CO ratio of 0.032, the contained water, which shows two clear bands at about 3630 and 3550 cm-1, is hydrogen-bonded to two C=O groups as C=O::H-O-H::O=C to form "the hydration core". The spectrum of the water that exceeds the ratio in question shows one broader band only, the frequency of which shifts downward with the increasing hydration. From detailed analysis of the behavior of the OH stretching and combination bands in relation to the H2O/CO ratio, we have concluded that the water that exceeds the hydration ratio becomes mobile to aggregate or "cluster" around hydrated sites rather than nonhydrated ones in the PMMA matrix, although the latter is much larger in population.     

Electrospun poly(methyl methacrylate) nanofibers and microparticles

Electrospinning at relatively low polymer concentrations results in particles rather than fibers. This particle-formation process can be termed as electrospray. So electrospinning/electrospray is a highly versatile method to process fibers and particles with different morphologies. In this work, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) micro- and nanostructures with different morphologies (fibers, spheres, cup-like, and ring-like) have been produced by a facile electrospinning/electrospray method. PMMA was electrospun into various morphologies from only DMF without any other solvents. Field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) images demonstrate the different morphologies and prove this technique to be an effective method for obtaining morphology-controllable polymer materials by changing the processing parameters. These micro- and nanostructured polymer materials may find applications in drug delivery and filtration media.     

Fractal effects of crack propagation on dynamic stress intensity factors and crack velocities

Crack extension paths are often irregular, producing rough fracture surfaces which have a fractal geometry. In this paper, crack tip motion along a fractal crack trace is analysed. A fractal kinking model of the crack extension path is established to describe irregular crack growth. A formula is derived to describe the effects of fractal crack propagation on the dynamic stress intensity factor and on crack velocity. The ratio of the dynamic stress intensity factor to the applied stress intensity factor K(L(D, t), V)/K(L(t), 0), is a function of apparent crack velocity V_o, microstructure parameter d/a (grain size/crack increment step length), fractal dimension D, and fractal kinking angle of crack extension path . For fractal crack propagation, the apparent (or measured) crack velocity V_o, cannot approach the Rayleigh wave speed Cr. Why V_o is significantly lower than Cr in dynamic fracture experiments can be explained by the effects of fractal crack propagation. The dynamic stress intensity factor and apparent crack velocity are strongly affected by the microstructure parameter (d/a), fractal dimension D, and fractal kinking angle of crack extension path . This is in good agreement with experimental findings.     

Analytical and experimental investigation of fatigue crack propagation for polyethylene methacrylate

The fatigue crack growth of most polymers is sensitive to temperature. In this paper, tests on fatigue crack growth of polyethylene methacrylate were carried out and the fatigue crack growth rate was obtained at temperature range −50 to 90 °C and frequency 1 Hz. The fatigue crack propagation (FCP) properties of polyethylene methacrylate and metals were studied comparatively and a new modified formula for FCP rate was deduced to describe the polyethylene methacrylate FCP rates. The formula includes four parameters: the FCP threshold, Young's modulus, fracture toughness and stress ratio. The predicted curve based on this modified formula corresponds very well with the test data of polyethylene methacrylate at different temperatures. Therefore, the modified formula can be used to describe the FCP process.     

Effect of residual stress on crack propagation in MDPE pipes

Crack propagation behaviour in single edge notched specimens prepared from medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) pipe is examined under creep condition. The crack grown from an exterior notch (inbound) initiated faster than that grown from an interior notch (outbound). Subsequently, the outbound crack propagated monotonically to ultimate failure. The inbound crack showed anomalous behaviour involving two arrest stages prior to ultimate failure. The pipe is found to possess substantial residual stresses. The energy release rate for each case was calculated taking into account the respective residual stream distribution. The fact that the rates of crack propagation are not a unique function of the energy release rate indicates that the fracture is also influenced by morphological gradients imposed by processing conditions.