Modelling the long-term changes in stream, soil and ground water chemistry for an acid moorland in the Welsh uplands: the influence of variations in chemical weathering

A long-term model of stream acidification, MAGIC, has been applied to an acidic moorland catchment, the Gwy, in mid-Wales. This application has been used to examine the effects of variability of weathering on soil, groundwater and stream water chemistry from 1844 to the present day and onwards to 2080 with a predicted acidic oxide reduction of 60% in the future. The results show that weathering initially affects soil, groundwater and stream water chemistry profoundly. Despite this, the results indicate that a simple two-layer (one soil and one groundwater end-member) model can still provide a good prediction of long-term stream water quality even when each soil and groundwater area is heterogeneous in composition. The work provides support for the use of the lumped MAGIC model. However, for the predictions to be applicable it is shown that it is critical that the relative contribution of waters and soil exchange materials from the hydrochemically distinct regions within the catchment are adequately represented within the model. This probably means that further field work is required to examine source area contributions.     

Continuous-flow laboratory simulation of stream water quality changes downstream of an untreated wastewater discharge

In regions of the world with poor provision of wastewater treatment, raw sewage is often discharged directly into surface waters. This paper describes an experimental evaluation of the fate of two organic chemicals under these conditions using an artificial channel cascade fed with a mix of settled sewage and river water at its upstream end and operated under continuous steady-state conditions. The experiments underpin an environmental risk assessment methodology based on the idea of an “impact zone” (IZ) - the zone downstream of wastewater emission in which water quality is severely impaired by high concentrations of unionised ammonia, nitrite and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Radiolabelled dodecane-6-benzene sulphonate (DOBS) and aniline hydrochloride were used as the model chemical and reference compound respectively. Rapid changes in ¹⁴C counts were observed with flow-time for both these materials. These changes were most likely to be due to complete mineralisation. A dissipation half-life of approximately 7.1 h was observed for the ¹⁴C label with DOBS. The end of the IZ was defined as the point at which the concentration of both unionised ammonia and nitrite fell below their respective predicted no-effect concentrations for salmonids. At these points in the cascade, approximately 83 and 90% of the initial concentration of ¹⁴C had been removed from the water column, respectively. A simple model of mineral nitrogen transformations based on Michaelis-Menten kinetics was fitted to observed concentrations of NH₄, NO₂ and NO₃. The cascade is intended to provide a confirmatory methodology for assessing the ecological risks of chemicals under direct discharge conditions.     

Link between DOC in near surface peat and stream water in an upland catchment

Hydrologic transport of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from peat soils may differ to organo-mineral soils in how they responded to changes in flow, because of differences in soil profile and hydrology. In well-drained organo-mineral soils, low flow is through the lower mineral layer where DOC is absorbed and high flow is through the upper organic layer where DOC is produced. DOC concentrations in streams draining organo-mineral soils typically increase with flow. In saturated peat soils, both high and low flows are through an organic layer where DOC is produced. Therefore, DOC in stream water draining peat may not increase in response to changes in flow as there is no switch in flow path between a mineral and organic layer. To verify this, we conducted a high-resolution monitoring study of soil and stream water at an upland peat catchment in northern England. Our data showed a strong positive correlation between DOC concentrations at -1 and -5 cm depth and stream water, and weaker correlations between concentrations at -20 to -50 cm depth and stream water. Although near surface organic material appears to be the key source of stream water DOC in both peat and organo-mineral soils, we observed a negative correlation between stream flow and DOC concentrations instead of a positive correlation as DOC released from organic layers during low and high flow was diluted by rainfall. The differences in DOC transport processes between peat and organo-mineral soils have different implications for our understanding of long-term changes in DOC exports. While increased rainfall may cause an increase in DOC flux from peat due to an increase in water volume, it may cause a decrease in concentrations. This response is contrary to expected changes in DOC exports from organo-mineral soils, where increase rainfall is likely to result in an increase in flux and concentration.     

仙居永安溪沿岸水利型景观公园设计初探

本以实际工程为例,对充分挖掘和保护原生态景观优势、努力协调与水利工程的关系进行了初步论述,并提出应将由水利工程导致的对自然景观的破坏转化为优势,使水利工程与景观融为一体,从而形成颇具特色的水利型景观公园。     

Variation in river water temperatures in an upland stream over a 30-year period

Stream water temperature data from the Girnock burn, a 30-km2 catchment in Scotland were examined for systematic variation across 30 years of record (1968-1997). The data suggest that there has been no change in mean annual temperature with time, but at a seasonal level there is some indication of an increase in mean daily maximum temperatures during the winter (December to February) and spring (March to May) seasons. For the spring season, there is also evidence that mean temperature has increased. There are no apparent or obvious changes in stream flow to account for this. The strong relationship between air and stream temperatures (r2 = 0.96) implies that changes in the stream are the result of changes in the climate. It is possible that this may occur as a result of the effect of increasing air temperatures which may have also reduced the influence of snow and snowmelt on the catchment during the winter and spring seasons.     

最新水消防技术中压单流体细水雾系统介绍

由于气体灭火系统在安装和使用成本、维护、对付火灾复燃和环保等方面存在的缺陷,除了气体灭火系统本身在不断改进外,在取代气体灭火技术方面,水消防技术的发展是最迅速,最有效的.双流体细水雾系统替代气体灭火系统,国外使用多年了,国内也在研发双流体细水雾技术,近年相应系统产品也已问世.双流体细水雾系统虽然有了细水雾优良的灭火性能,但由于仍然需要使用高压气体,所以没有完全消除气体灭火系统的缺陷.20世纪末期,作为水消防的最新技术,美国研究用中压单流体细水雾系统来替代气体灭火系统和大喷水强度的喷淋系统,在完成了产品的大量灭火试验和取得UL、FM认证后,作为一种经济、有效的水消防新技术,开始在美国和世界各地广泛使用.产品分为两大类型,一类使用于陆地的工业、商业建筑和设备保护,一类使用于舰船保护.中压单流体细水雾系统,完全排除了气体灭火系统的缺点,具有气体灭火和水灭火的双重优点,由于消防耗水量很少,大大降低了消防的水渍损失.除用来替代气体灭火系统外,也可以代替常规的水喷雾系统和某种场所的水喷淋系统.本文介绍用于陆地美国AquaMist(○R)细水雾系统,用于舰船的系统将另文介绍.     

Nitrogen inputs to stream water from forests along an elevational gradient in New Mexico

Studies of nitrogen inputs in precipitation and outputs in stream water for a number of terrestrial ecosystems support the hypothesis that undisturbed communities have the ability to reduce losses of nitrogen via stream water. In spite of different levels of biomass, productivity and stream discharge for these communities, net losses of nitrogen were similar. Maintaining nitrogen in an organic or cation form (NH₃, NH₄⁺) is an important factor in minimizing loss. This may be accomplished by slow rates of mineralization, rapid plant uptake, and denitrification through the electron sink pathway. Denitrification by the dissimilatory pathway may also be important.     

Riparian zone influence on stream water chemistry at different spatial scales: a GIS-based modelling approach, an example for the Dee, NE Scotland

A geographical information system (GIS-ARC/INFO) was used to collate existing spatial data sets on catchment characteristics to predict stream water quality using simple empirical models. The study, based on the river Dee catchment in NE Scotland, found that geological maps and associated geochemical information provided a suitable framework for predicting chemical parameters associated with acidification sensitivity (including alkalinity and base cation concentrations). In particular, it was found that in relatively undisturbed catchments, the parent material and geochemistry of the riparian zone, when combined with a simple hydrological flow path model, could be used to accurately predict stream water chemistry at a range of flows (Q95 to > Q5) and spatial scales (1-1000 km2). This probably reflects the importance of the riparian zone as an area where hydrological inputs to stream systems occur via flow paths in the soil and groundwater zones. Thus, evolution of drainage water chemistry appears to retain the geochemical characteristics of the riparian area as it enters the channel network. In more intensively managed catchments, riparian land use is a further influential factor, which can be incorporated into models to improve predictions for certain base cations. The utility in providing simple hydrochemical models, based on readily available data sets, to assist environmental managers in planning land use in catchment systems is discussed.     

Effect of phosphorus stripping on water chemistry and diatom ecology in an eastern lowland river

The effect of nutrient removal at Ashford sewage treatment works on the benthic diatom ecology of the River Stour was studied. This paper describes assemblages above and below the works both before and after phosphorus stripping was installed. Taxa typical of eutrophic conditions dominated all samples, including those upstream of the works, suggesting that the river was already eutrophic before receiving the sewage effluent. Once nutrient removal was installed, phosphorus concentrations measured downstream of the works were similar to those measured upstream; however, there was little change in the diatom flora. Analysis of chemical data collected from the site suggest that the river may be nitrogen-limited for part of the year, and that, even with phosphorus stripping installed, the river still exceeds the Environment Agency's proposed interim targets for phosphorus concentrations in a eutrophic river.     

Management of optimum water quality in a stream

An optimal waste discharge policy along a stream is investigated based on a program of minimizing the total cost benefit function on a regional basis. The system consists of a stream along which are located several inputs of waste and intakes of water. The cost benefit function comprises of the sum of the cost of waste treatment and the cost of water treatment minus the benefits derived from maintaining a certain water quality in the stream. The biochemical oxygen demand and the dissolved oxygen are considered to be the primary indicators of water quality. A steady state dispersion model is employed to predict the BOD and DO concentrations along the stream.     

Metals in an acid mine stream and estuary

Data on the concentrations of selected metals in the waters and sediments of an acid mine stream and its estuary are reported. The river water at the mouth is enriched in zinc, copper and manganese by at least two orders of magnitude above normal river water concentrations after having been significantly diluted by non-metalliferous tributaries. Iron is precipitated along the length of the stream while losses of copper and zinc from solution occur by adsorption onto hydrated ferric oxide above pH values of 4.5 and 6, respectively. Manganese concentrations are affected solely by dilution. The dissipation of the metalliferous river water in the marine regime is restricted, giving rise to estuarine waters containing high concentrations of copper and zinc both in solution and hydrogenous suspension. Deposition of hydrogenous material within the estuary is small, but approximately 50 % of the zinc and 90 % of the copper in the sediment is in a potentially mobile form. The environment is an unsuitable habitat for all but a few organisms.     

Microbiology, chemistry and biofilm development in a pilot drinking water distribution system with copper and plastic pipes

We studied the changes in water quality and formation of biofilms occurring in a pilot-scale water distribution system with two generally used pipe materials: copper and plastic (polyethylene, PE). The formation of biofilms with time was analysed as the number of total bacteria, heterotrophic plate counts and the concentration of ATP in biofilms. At the end of the experiment (after 308 days), microbial community structure, viable biomass and gram-negative bacterial biomass were analysed via lipid biomarkers (phospholipid fatty acids and lipopolysaccharide 3-hydroxy fatty acids), and the numbers of virus-like particles and total bacteria were enumerated by SYBR Green I staining. The formation of biofilm was slower in copper pipes than in the PE pipes, but after 200 days there was no difference in microbial numbers between the pipe materials. Copper ion led to lower microbial numbers in water during the first 200 days, but thereafter there were no differences between the two pipe materials. The number of virus-like particles was lower in biofilms and in outlet water from the copper pipes than PE pipes. Pipe material influenced also the microbial and gram-negative bacterial community structure in biofilms and water.     

Trends in hydrometeorological conditions and stream water organic carbon in boreal forested catchments

Temporal trends in stream water total organic carbon (TOC) concentration and export were studied in 8 forested headwater catchments situated in eastern Finland. The Seasonal Kendall test was conducted to identify the trends and a mixed model regression analysis was used to describe how catchment characteristics and hydrometeorological variables (e.g. precipitation, air and stream water temperatures, and atmospheric deposition) related to the variation in the concentration and export of stream water TOC. The 8 catchments varied in size from 29 to 494 ha and in the proportion of peatland they contained, from 8 to 70%. Runoff and TOC concentration were monitored for 15-29 years (1979-2006). Trends and variation in TOC levels were analysed from annual and seasonal time series. Mean annual TOC concentration increased significantly in seven of the eight catchments. The trends were the strongest in spring and most apparent during the last decade of the study period. The slopes of the trends were generally smaller than the variation in TOC concentration between years and seasons and between catchments. The annual TOC export showed no clear trends and values were largely determined by the temporal variability in runoff. Annual runoff showed a decreasing trend in two of the eight catchments. Mean annual air and stream water temperatures showed increasing trends, most clearly seen in the summer and autumn series. According to our modeling results, stream water temperature, precipitation and peatland percentage were the most important variables explaining annual and most seasonal TOC concentrations. The atmospheric deposition of SO₄, NH₄, and NO₃ decreased significantly over the study period, but no significant link with TOC concentration was found. Precipitation was the main hydrometeorological driver of the TOC export. We concluded that stream water TOC concentrations and exports are mainly driven by catchment characteristics and hydrometeorological factors rather than trends in atmospheric acid deposition.     

Relationships between indicators,pathogens and water quality in an estuarine system

This study examined water and sediment samples for a range of indicator and pathogenic microorganisms from six sites in an urban estuary, Sydney, Australia. Water quality was affected by rainfall and sewage overflows which were associated with significant increases in the concentration of faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, Clostridium perfringens spores, F-RNA bacteriophage, Aeromonas spp., Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. However, in sediments, only faecal coliform concentrations were significantly increased by rainfall, although sewage overflow again resulted in increased concentrations of faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, C. perfringens spores and Aeromonas. Isolation of Salmonella appeared to coincide with wet weather events and occasionally identical serotypes were detected in sediments at several locations within the estuary. However, isolations of enteric virus were sporadic and did not appear to be exclusively related to wet weather events. C. perfringens was identified as the most useful indicator of faecal pollution and was the only indicator significantly correlated to the presence of pathogenic Giardia (r = 0.41, p < 0.05) and the opportunistic bacterial genus Aeromonas (r = 0.39, p < 0.05). F-RNA bacteriophage was not significantly correlated with any of the pathogens examined.     

Progressive changes in water and sediment quality in a wetland system for control of highway runoff

Innovative wetland based systems were designed and installed on the Newbury Bypass, Berkshire, England to provide flow balancing and pollution control for road runoff. The systems were monitored over 18 months to evaluate performance, pollutant removal processes and offer improved design and operation codes for this new application of wetlands. Water quality, sediment accumulation rates, and metal concentrations in size-fractionated, settling solids and deposited sediments were determined in parts of the system to provide information on spatial and temporal variability. The results presented here show that over the long term, there were progressive changes in parts of the system for BOD and COD and for metal concentrations in the sediment fractions, which occurred with linear (or semi log-linear) rates, despite variability in flow rates, retention times and in pollutant loading to the system. Future work will continue monitoring to increase the data set, examine possible processes contributing to the regression constants, and test the potential use of the regressions in system modelling. Attempts at modelling road runoff treatment using wetlands must allow for progressions, since the systems can only be effective if they retain removed metals in the sediment sink.     

Speciation of aluminum in an acidic mountain stream

Using a chelating resin a practical method was developed for speciating aluminum in those oligotrophic streams impacted by acid rain. The four categories operationally defined were rapidly exchangeable (monomeric and small polymeric cationically charged species), moderately fast exchangeable (principally inorganically complexed species), slowly exchangeable (principally organically complexed species), and nonexchangeable or inert aluminum (strong alumino-organic complexes, colloidal, or crystalline forms). Applying the procedure to unfiltered samples collected from a mildly acidic mountain stream, it was found that in upstream samples, where pH was low, rapidly exchangeable aluminum species dominated, while in the downstream samples, where pH was higher, the moderately fast exchangeable, slowly exchangeable, and inert aluminum species were the major ones.Two principal forms of particulate aluminum were also identified and determined: that which dissolves and is taken up by the resin (principally inorganic) and that which remains relatively inert (principally associated with humic material and/or other organic matter).     

Exploring landscape changes using an envisioning system in rural community workshops

In order to understand land use changes it is useful to provide communities with visions of how their landscape may change. For this purpose, we have developed an envisioning system, which can help communities contemplate alternative land use configurations. This system links a geographic information system, virtual reality, mobile computing devices, and environmental process models into a platform that allows visual exploration and evaluation of future landscape scenarios. Alternative land use configurations can be suggested using the GIS interface, which can be viewed via an immersive 3D environment permitting immediate evaluation. Using personal digital assistants, opinions on visible changes can be expressed by a choice of responses. These are fed back to the system, where they are collected. People can then determine if the probable changes accord with their judgements and values and adjust the extent or nature of the changes accordingly. The aim of the envisioning system is to help communities learn about their local landscape, to examine the consequences of applying different values, and to support informed decisions on land use planning issues. We tested the portable envisioning system platform in two public workshops in the Cudgewa Valley of northeastern Victoria, Australia. It is expected that the current land use will diversify, under economic pressures, from predominantly cattle farming as neighbouring valleys have done already.