Stabilisation/solidification of synthetic petroleum drill cuttings

This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation into the use of stabilisation/solidification (S/S) to treat synthetic drill cuttings as a pre-treatment to landfilling or for potential re-use as construction products. Two synthetic mixes were used based on average concentrations of specific contaminates present in typical drill cuttings from the North Sea and the Red Sea areas. The two synthetic drill cuttings contained similar chloride content of 2.03% and 2.13% by weight but different hydrocarbon content of 4.20% and 10.95% by weight, respectively; hence the mixes were denoted as low and high oil content mixes, respectively. A number of conventional S/S binders were tested including Portland cement (PC), lime and blast-furnace slag (BFS), in addition to novel binders such as microsilica and magnesium oxide cement. Physical, chemical and microstructural analyses were used to compare the relative performance of the different binder mixes. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) values were observed to cover a wide range depending on the binder used. Despite the significant difference in the hydrocarbon content in the two synthetic cuttings, the measured UCS values of the mixes with the same binder type and content were similar. The leachability results showed the reduction of the synthetic drill cuttings to a stable non-reactive hazardous waste, compliant with the UK acceptance criteria for non-hazardous landfills: (a) by most of the binders for chloride concentrations, and (b) by the 20% BFS-PC and 30% PC binders for the low oil content mix. The 30% BFS-PC binder successfully reduced the leached oil concentration of the low oil content mix to inert levels. Finally, the microstructural analysis offered valuable information on the morphology and general behaviour of the mixes that were not depicted by the other tests.     

Study on the optimization design of mixing moisture content in foamed asphalt mix

This research discussed the rational mixing moisture content (MMC) in foamed asphalt (FA) mix design. Sieve analysis was firstly used to study the bitumen dispersion and bitumen-aggregate coating and bonding action in FA mixes with three levels of MMC. Then, through variance analysis, the impacts of MMC, bitumen content and their interaction effect on the mechanical properties of FA mixes were studied. Indirect tensile strength test and dry density determination were carried out on FA mixes consisting of different gradings and material types to explore the rational MMC. On base of that, monotonic triaxial test was performed on two types FA mixes with various filler contents to further investigate the rational MMC for FA mix. The research results indicated that improper MMC led to bitumen clots and affected cohesion of FA mix. MMC and bitumen content had important impacts on mechanical properties of FA mix, while their interaction effect could be ignored in mix design. Optimal MMC increased to a certain extent with the increase of fine aggregates content, especially filler content in the grading. 70?C80% of the optimum moisture content (OMC) was recommended as rational range of MMC for FA mix with 5?C15% filler content and 75?C85% of OMC for mix with 15?C20% filler content, which offered a reference for easy and simplified MMC design for FA mix.     

Long-term compressive strength and some other properties of controlled low strength materials made with pozzolanic cement and Class C fly ash

Controlled low strength material (CLSM) is a flowable mixture that can be used as a backfill material in place of compacted soils. CLSM (or flowable fill) require no tamping or compaction to achieve its compressive strength and typically has a load carrying capacity much higher than that of compacted soils, but can be proportioned to allow future excavation. In this study, several different CLSM mixtures containing Class C fly ash (FA) obtained from Soma Thermal Power Plant in Turkey, crushed limestone sand (CLS), and a minimal amount of pozzolanic cement (PZC) were produced. The mass of PZC was kept constant for all mixtures at 5% of FA by mass. The mechanical and physical properties of CLSM mixtures such as unconfined compressive strength, water absorption by capillarity and EP toxicity were investigated by a series of laboratory tests. CLSM mixtures with low PZC contents and high Class C FA and CLS contents can be produced with excellent flowability and low unconfined compressive strengths in the range of 1.16-2.80 MPa at 365-days age when re-excavation at later ages might be needed. The results presented here show a new field of application for Soma FA in CLSM mixtures, resulting in great advantages in waste minimization, as well as, conservation of resources and environment.     

Properties of Portland cement--stabilised MSWI fly ashes

In the present paper, the properties of Portland cement mixtures containing fly ashes (FA) collected at four different Italian municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) plants were investigated.In particular, physical/mechanical characteristics (setting time, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and shrinkage/expansion), as well as the acid neutralisation behaviour of the solidified products were considered.The FA composition, revealing enrichment in heavy metals, chlorides and sulphates, significantly altered the hydration behaviour of Portland cement. Consequently, for some of the investigated FA the maximum allowable content for the mixtures to achieve appreciable mechanical strength was 20 wt.%. Even at low FA dosages setting of cement was strongly delayed. In order to improve the properties of FA/cement mixtures, the use of additives was tested.Moreover, the acid neutralisation capacity (ANC) of the solidified products was evaluated in order to assess the ability of the matrix to resist acidification, and also to provide information on hydration progression, as well as on heavy metal release under different pH conditions.Comparison of the results from the present work with previous studies carried out on spiked mixtures lead to the conclusion that the mechanical properties of the stabilised FA could not be predicted based on the effect exerted by heavy metals and anions only, even when the dilution effect exerted on cement was taken into account. It was likely that a major role was also played by alkalis, which were present in the FA at much higher concentrations than in cement.     

Development of bio-cemented constructional materials through microbial induced calcite precipitation

Microbial induced calcite precipitation (MICP) is an environmentally friendly technology to bond sand particle together to form sandstone like materials. In this paper, MICP-treated bio-specimen was developed through MICP. The property of bio-specimen was compared with beams or bricks made through lime modification and cement modification. Ottawa sand was used in MICP-treated bio-specimen preparation. The proportion of lime or cement was in the range of 10–40% by weight of dry sand. The four-point bending tests, brick compression tests and unconfined compression tests were conducted. The test results indicated that flexure strength of MICP-treated bio-specimen was 950 kPa which was similar to flexure strength of 20–25% cement-treated sand beams, but was much higher than flexure strength of 30% lime-treated sand beams. The brick compression strength of MICP-treated bio-specimen achieved 500 kPa, which was similar to brick compression strength of 30% lime-treated sand bricks. The unconfined compression test results showed that the unconfined compression strength (UCS) of MICP-treated bio-specimen (1300 kPa) was higher than UCS of 10% cement-treated specimen (900 kPa), and much higher than UCS of lime-treated sample (around 140 kPa). The relative uniformity of precipitated CaCO₃ distribution was achieved through the sample immersing preparation method. SEM images showed that failure pattern of MICP-treated, cement-treated and lime-treated specimens were bond-particle failure.     

Effect of waste plastic bottles on the stiffness and fatigue properties of modified asphalt mixes

Nowadays, the use of recycled waste materials as modifier additives in asphalt mixes could have several economic and environmental benefits. The main purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of waste plastic bottles (Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)) on the stiffness and specially fatigue properties of asphalt mixes at two different temperatures of 5 and 20 °C. Likewise, the effect of PET was compared to styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) which is a conventional polymer additive which has been vastly used to modify asphalt mixes. Different PET contents (2–10% by weight of bitumen) were added directly to mixture as the method of dry process. Then the resilient modulus and fatigue tests were performed on cylindrical specimens with indirect tensile loading procedure. Overall, the mix stiffness reduced by increasing the PET content. Although stiffness of asphalt mix initially increased by adding lower amount of PET. Based on the results of resilient modulus test, the stiffness of PET modified mix was acceptable and warranted the proper deformation characteristics of these mixes at heavy loading conditions. At both temperatures, PET improved the fatigue behavior of studied mixes. PET modified mixes revealed comparable stiffness and fatigue behavior to SBS at 20 °C. However, at 5 °C the fatigue life of SBS modified mixes was to some extent higher than that of PET modified ones especially at higher strain levels of 200 microstrain.     

Unconfined compressive strength and post-freeze–thaw behavior of fine-grained soils treated with geofiber and synthetic fluid

This study focuses on a relatively new non-traditional stabilizer (synthetic fluid) used in conjunction with geofiber to improve the strength characteristics of a low-plasticity fine-grained soil. The investigation is based on unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests. An efficient geofiber dosage was determined for the soil; treating it with geofiber only for the dosage rates varying from 0.2% to 1% by weight of dry soil. The individual contribution of the geofiber and synthetic fluid to the UCS gain was studied through testing each additive independently with the soil. Additionally, UCS tests were conducted on soil samples treated with geofiber and synthetic fluid together. All experiments were conducted for both unsoaked and soaked sample conditions. Strength developments were also investigated under freezing and thawing conditions. The treatment results are discussed in detail in terms of UCS and stress–strain response of the UCS test. The results demonstrate that the use of geofiber with synthetic fluid provided the highest UCS improvement (170% relative gain) in unsoaked samples when compared with the other treatment configurations. On the other hand, the synthetic fluid, when used alone, caused a relative decrease of 21% in the UCS of untreated soil in soaked conditions. The use of geofiber with synthetic fluid performed better in terms of the UCS under freezing and thawing conditions, while the synthetic fluid alone under the same conditions performed inadequately. The stress–strain responses of the soil treated with geofiber and synthetic fluid in terms of post-peak strength, strain hardening, and ductility were better than that of treated with synthetic fluid alone. Finally, the resilient modulus for the various treatment configurations was estimated from the UCS results. The findings indicate that the investigated soil stabilization technology appears to be promising for sites that can be represented by unsoaked conditions (i.e., where adequate drainage and unsaturated conditions can be ensured).     

Performance of metakaolin concrete at elevated temperatures

An experimental investigation was conducted to evaluate the performance of metakaolin (MK) concrete at elevated temperatures up to 800 °C. Eight normal and high strength concrete (HSC) mixes incorporating 0%, 5%, 10% and 20% MK were prepared. The residual compressive strength, chloride-ion penetration, porosity and average pore sizes were measured and compared with silica fume (SF), fly ash (FA) and pure ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concretes. It was found that after an increase in compressive strength at 200 °C, the MK concrete suffered a more severe loss of compressive strength and permeability-related durability than the corresponding SF, FA and OPC concretes at higher temperatures. Explosive spalling was observed in both normal and high strength MK concretes and the frequency increased with higher MK contents.     

Performance evaluation of WMA plant and field trial mixes

Warm mix asphalt (WMA) technology is still in its infancy, with significant scope for further exploration of the benefits of incorporation of higher percentages of recycled asphalt RA as well as modified binders for performance enhancement. The objective of this study was to evaluate three different WMA technologies, namely chemical and organic additives as well as foamed technology, within different mix compositions. The variables in mix composition included 10–20 % RA in surfacing mixes and 20–40 % RA in base layer mixes. The binder variables included two base binders, control mixes (no modifier) and ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) or styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) with or without WMA technologies. A partial factorial experimental design based on the above variables was developed. Full-scale plant mixes and field (construction) mixes were produced and beams were prepared from compacted slabs and tested under 4 point loading to provide master curves and fatigue relations. Comparative results show inconsistent trends between different technologies. control mixes (HMA) can provide both higher and lower flexural stiffness than their WMA counterparts. EVA or SBS modification can provide either superior or inferior mixes to their WMA counterparts depending on the WMA technology. Generally the fatigue results of both the HMA surfacing and base layer mixes at both RA contents are superior to their equivalent WMA counterparts. The implications of these differences are explored in the publication.     

Behaviour of sand–clay mixtures for road pavement subgrade

Materials forming sand grains and colluvial soil deposits have a distinct structure, consisting of a composite matrix of coarse and fine soil grains. The influence of sand grains content on the behaviour of sand–clay mixtures was investigated by a series of intensive laboratory experiments. The California bearing ratio (CBR), unconfined compression strength (UCS) and compaction tests were carried out on various contents of sand and clay mixtures. The sand–clay mixtures were prepared with sand contents of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% by weight. The laboratory tests on these mixtures have indicated that their behaviour will depend on the relative concentration of the sand and clay samples. The results of the tests showed a decrease in the UCS, and an increase the CBR values with an increase in the amount of sand. An increase in dry unit weight and a decrease in respective moisture content by an increase in the amount of sand were observed in the compaction tests.     

Influence of selected WMA additives on viscoelastic behaviour of asphalt mixes and pavements

Warm mix asphalt additives are effective in decreasing production, laying and compaction temperatures of asphalt mixes. However, there are still questions concerning influence of warm mix additives on properties of asphalt mixes and pavement performance. This paper presents results of the comprehensive research of viscoelastic behaviour of asphalt mixes and pavement structures with layers made with warm mix asphalt additives at high temperatures. Two additives of significantly different effects on mixes at higher temperatures were selected for analysis, namely aliphatic synthetic wax produced with the use of Fisher–Tropsch method and formulation of surfactant- based molecules (ionic and non-ionic). Viscoelastic properties of mixes with these two additives and, as a reference mix, with neat unmodified asphalt binder were determined in uniaxial compression with sinusoidal loading using Asphalt Mixture Performance Test. The viscoelastic analysis of pavement structures was performed with use of the VEROAD software and data from laboratory testing. Two different pavement structures were analysed, for light and heavy traffic. The temperature distribution in pavement structure during the hottest summer day in northern Poland in 2012 was taken into account. The model of pavement was loaded with moving wheel at different speeds. The analysis has shown that two tested warm mix additives had different effect on viscoelastic transient response at high temperatures. One of them (Fischer–Tropsch wax) evidently caused an increase in resistance of asphalt mix and pavement structure to loading at high temperature. The second additive (formulation of surfactant-based molecules) slightly reduced resistance of asphalt mix and pavement to loading at high temperatures as compared with the reference mix.     

Evaluation of the performance of recycled textile fibres in the mechanical behaviour of a gypsum and cork composite material

Given the need for using more sustainable constructive solutions, an innovative composite material based on a combination of distinct industrial by-products is proposed aiming to reduce waste and energy consumption in the production of construction materials. The raw materials are thermal activated flue-gas desulphurization (FGD) gypsum, which acts as a binder, granulated cork as the aggregate and recycled textile fibres from used tyres intended to reinforce the material.This paper presents the results of the design of the composite mortar mixes, the characterization of the key physical properties (density, porosity and ultrasonic pulse velocity) and the mechanical validation based on uniaxial compressive tests and fracture energy tests. In the experimental campaign, the influence of the percentage of the raw materials in terms of gypsum mass, on the mechanical properties of the composite material was assessed.It was observed that the percentage of granulated cork decreases the compressive strength of the composite material but contributes to the increase in the compressive fracture energy. Besides, the recycled textile fibres play an important role in the mode I fracture process and in the fracture energy of the composite material, resulting in a considerable increase in the mode I fracture energy.     

Transport and mechanical properties of self consolidating concrete with high volume fly ash

This paper presents the transport and mechanical properties of self consolidating concrete that contain high percentages of low-lime and high-lime fly ash (FA). Self consolidating concretes (SCC) containing five different contents of high-lime FA and low-lime FA as a replacement of cement (30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 by weight of total cementitious material) are examined. For comparison, a control SCC mixture without any FA was also produced. The fresh properties of the SCCs were observed through, slump flow time and diameter, V-funnel flow time, L-box height ratio, and segregation ratio. The hardened properties included the compressive strength, split tensile strength, drying shrinkage and transport properties (absorption, sorptivity and rapid chloride permeability tests) up to 365 days. Test results confirm that it is possible to produce SCC with a 70% of cement replacement by both types of FA. The use of high volumes of FA in SCC not only improved the workability and transport properties but also made it possible to produce concretes between 33 and 40 MPa compressive strength at 28 days, which exceeds the nominal compressive strength for normal concrete (30 MPa).     

Controlled low-strength material using fly ash and AMD sludge

Controlled low-strength material (CLSM) is a cementitious material with properties similar to stabilized soil. After hardening, CLSM provides adequate strength in bearing capacity and support but can also be easily excavated. To be classified as a CLSM, the material must have a compressive strength between 450 kPa (65 psi) and 8400 kPa (1200 psi). Typical CLSM contains coal-combustion fly ash (FA), cement, water and fine or coarse aggregate. In this paper, physical and strength properties of CLSM formed by combining sludge, a by-product from the treatment of acid mine drainage (AMD), with Class F FA are investigated. The sludge is a lime-based waste product that when combined with FA, exhibits self-hardening characteristics similar to cement. A main focus of this research is to develop a CLSM mix in which by-product material utilization is maximized while satisfying workability and performance requirements. A mixture of 10% AMD sludge, 2.5% Portland cement (PC), 87.5% Class F FA (dry wt.%) with water provided unconfined compressive strength values within the range for classification as CLSM. This mixture satisfies the excavatability and walkability requirements as well as the hardening time and stability criteria.     

Effects of superfine zeolite on strength,flowability and cohesiveness of cementitious paste

Superfine zeolite (SFZ) is a natural zeolite ground to higher fineness than cement. Being a pozzolanic material, it can be used to replace part of the cement to reduce the cement consumption and carbon footprint of concrete production. In this study, in order to evaluate the effects of SFZ on strength and fresh properties, a total of 30 cementitious paste mixes with different SFZ contents and different W/CM ratios were produced for 7-day, 28-day, 70-day strength tests, and flowability and cohesiveness tests. And, to evaluate the effectiveness of SFZ as a superfine filler, the changes in packing density and water film thickness (WFT) due to the addition of SFZ were measured and determined. It was found that the addition of SFZ as cement replacement up to 20% slightly decreased the early strength, but slightly increased the long-term strength. Moreover, it increased the packing density and exerted its influence on the fresh properties of cementitious paste through the corresponding change in WFT. It also significantly increased the cohesiveness at the same flowability.     

Thermal properties of lightweight dry-mix shotcrete containing expanded perlite aggregate

This paper describes the thermal properties of lightweight dry-mix shotcrete using expanded perlite aggregate (EPA). Mixes made with different EPA/sand ratios were sprayed through the dry-mix shotcreting technique onto wooden molds to produce panels for mechanical and thermal testing. The density, uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), splitting tensile strength (STS), and the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) were measured at various ages. Further, the ISO approved transient plane source (TPS) technique was employed to measure the thermal properties at 28 days. The results illustrate that shotcrete mixes with EPA have similar UCS and superior STS compared to cast concrete. Adding EPA led to a drop in thermal conductivity and diffusivity. When compared with cast concrete, shotcrete had lower specific heat capacity. This study found dry-mix shotcrete incorporating EPA at up to 75% sand substitution as a mechanically viable and thermally resistant alternative to cast concrete containing regular aggregates.     

Strength properties of fly ash based controlled low strength materials

Controlled low strength material (CLSM) is a flowable mixture that can be used as a backfill material in place of compacted soils. Flowable fill requires no tamping or compaction to achieve its strength and typically has a load carrying capacity much higher than compacted soils, but it can still be excavated easily. The selection of CLSM type should be based on technical and economical considerations for specific applications. In this study, a mixture of high volume fly ash (FA), crushed limestone powder (filler) and a low percentage of pozzolana cement have been tried in different compositions. The amount of pozzolana cement was kept constant for all mixes as, 5% of fly ash weight. The amount of mixing water was chosen in order to provide optimum pumpability by determining the spreading ratio of CLSM mixtures using flow table method. The shear strength of the material is a measure of the materials ability to support imposed stresses on the material. The shear strength properties of CLSM mixtures have been investigated by a series of laboratory tests. The direct shear test procedure was applied for determining the strength parameters Phi (angle of shearing resistance) and C(h) (cohesion intercept) of the material. The test results indicated that CLSM mixtures have superior shear strength properties compared to compacted soils. Shear strength, cohesion intercept and angle of shearing resistance values of CLSM mixtures exceeded conventional soil materials' similar properties at 7 days. These parameters proved that CLSM mixtures are suitable materials for backfill applications.     

Effects of high friction aggregate and PG Plus binder on rutting resistance of hot mix asphalt mixtures

The rutting resistance of hot mix asphalt (HMA) Superpave? mixes in surface course materials was investigated using asphalt material characterisation tests and a digital imaging processing (DIP) technique. The effects of the type of aggregate, the type of binder and the binder content on rutting resistance were quantified. Two types of aggregate were examined: Superpave? SP12.5 and high friction SP12.5 FC2. Both a modified (PG Plus) and an unmodified binders were considered at the optimum binder content and the optimum content plus an additional 0.5%. To accurately identify the effect of each variable, the shear upheave of these mixes was also quantified. The DIP technique involved estimating the number of aggregate contacts, the total contact length and internal structure index of two-dimensional images of the experimentally tested samples. The results showed that both the rutting resistance and stiffness of HMA surface mixes were sensitive to aggregate type, binder type and binder content. A high friction aggregate provided a better internal structure characteristic, as well as superior rutting resistance and stiffness for HMA mixes. The use of PG Plus and the addition of 0.5% to the optimum binder content negatively affected HMA stiffness and rutting resistance. However, the levels of rutting resistance for all mixes were acceptable (rut depth < 12.5 mm), even when the shear upheave was considered. Internal structure indices measured by DIP were effective for capturing changes in the internal HMA structure with respect to aggregate type and asphalt cement content.     

Engineering property and structural design relationships for new and developing concretes

The paper reports the findings of a study carried out to investigate the effect of new and developing concrete technology solutions,e.g. (i) use of particle packing techniques and fillers to minimise voids, (ii) use of cement additions attained from industrial by-products and (iii) use of high range water-reducing admixtures which enable lower cement contents, on the engineering and structural performance of concrete and implications for structural design. The test programme considered 54 concrete mixes in three series to assess the impact of these on the tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete, and in parallel, 37 mixes to measure these effects on the shear resistance of reinforced concrete beams. The results indicate that the influence of the concretes on compressive strength were generally inproportion to the effects on other engineering properties and were in line with current design assumptions on the behaviour of concrete. Furthermore, EC2 equations for predicting the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams, based on compressive strength, were also found to be appropriate for the range of concrete mixes considered. Overall, the work has demonstrated that new and developing concrete technology solutions can be utilised effectively within the framework of present design procedures and compressive strength is an appropriate parameter for assessing the structural performance of these concretes.     

Strength properties of steel slag stabilized mixes

A new type of low-strength concrete made with steel slag and gravel was investigated in this report. Increasing the amount of cement or steel slag in the mix increased the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of the concrete. Additionally, the compressive and indirect tensile strength of the concrete increased with curing age. The strength of mixes with low cement contents increased with the slag content, while that of mixes with higher cement contents decreased with slag content. Finally, the average indirect tensile strength for all mixes as a percentage of compressive strength was ∼14%.