Differential utilization of syntactic and semantic information by skilled and less skilled readers in the intermediate grades.

Administered to 270 4th–6th graders the Culture Fair Intelligence Test and the Comprehension subtest of the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests. Matched pairs of skilled and less skilled readers then read aloud a variety of material in cloze procedure format and printed in geometric transformations. The extent to which the syntactic and semantic constraints of the text guided their performance was assessed. Both on the cloze procedure and the transformed texts, skilled readers made greater use of grammatical and contextual information. Furthermore, there was no significant improvement across grade levels in the proportions of syntactically and semantically appropriate responses. The stability of differences between skilled and less skilled readers suggests the possibility that differential utilization of syntactic and semantic cues by beginning readers might contribute to differences among them in the development of reading skill. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reading skill and memory scanning.

Four experiments using a total of 48 3rd–4th graders investigated differences between skilled and less skilled readers in the rate with which they scan memory. In each experiment, Ss read 1–3 unrelated statements, then answered a yes–no question pertaining to 1 of the statements. The primary result from Exps I and II, in which Ss read all material aloud, was that skilled readers answered questions approximately .6 sec faster than less skilled readers when reading time was partialed out. In Exp III, similar results were found for silent reading. In Exp IV, the difference in answering time found in Exps I–III was no longer significant when the scan component in answering was minimized. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences for self-regulating task-oriented reading activities.

The goal of this study is to analyze the self-regulation processes present in task-oriented reading activities. In the 1st experiment, we examined the following self-regulation processes in the context of answering questions about an available text: (a) monitoring the comprehension of the question, (b) self-regulating the search process, and (c) monitoring the decision to search. Skilled and less skilled comprehenders from 7th and 8th grades read 2 texts and answered 16 questions while all their actions were recorded on a computer. We hypothesized that skilled comprehenders would differ from less skilled comprehenders on the 1st 2 processes on the basis of their general comprehension skills but that their superiority in the 3rd process would be based on specific characteristics of the interaction between the reader and the text. The results support our hypotheses. In the 2nd experiment, we hypothesized that monitoring the decision to search would be equivalent to judgments of learning (JOLs). Eighth graders made JOLs before answering every question, and then they decided whether to search the text. Our hypothesis was confirmed. Our study reveals that task-oriented reading places specific demands on readers related to metacognitive monitoring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Short-term retention of discourse during reading.

In 2 experiments, 68 3rd, 4th, and 6th graders at different reading levels were given a probe memory task assessing the availability in working memory of recently read discourse segments. During oral and silent reading (Exp I), retention was related to segment length and the occurrence of a sentence boundary. The limits on retention were tested by increasing segment length and difficulty (Exp II). For these segments, performance of less skilled readers was uniformly low, whereas that of the skilled and older readers continued to be affected by length and sentence boundary. Relationships between individual differences in verbal coding processes and short-term retention of discourse as well as implications for text comprehension models are discussed. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Syllable coding in printed-word recognition by children and adults.

Studied phonological coding in printed-word recognition in English by examining the use made of syllable information by skilled and less skilled readers in 2 experiments using 32 2nd graders and 81 undergraduates. Stimuli were bisyllabic frequent nouns. Syllable coding was used by the less-skilled 2nd graders but not by either the better 2nd graders or adults in lexical decision tasks. However, adults did make use of syllable information when the direct use of letter information was slowed by presenting items in alternating upper- and lowercase letters. Differences between children and adults in their use of the syllable information in pseudowords are interpreted as indicating that for skilled adult readers, the major focus of activity in word recognition is at the letter level. For immature readers, the process of word recognition is less analytic and involves a more extensive lexical search based on a reduced amount of letter information. The results are discussed in terms of an interactive model of reading. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differences in the use of selective attention by more successful and less successful tenth-grade readers.

Both more successful and less successful readers appear to use the selective attention strategy (SAS) to learn important text information; however, more successful readers tend to learn and recall considerably more important, as well as unimportant, information. The 2 studies reported here investigated the reason(s) for the more successful readers' learning and recall advantage. In Exp 1, 10th graders were asked to read, learn, and recall information from a text on marine biology. Questions were inserted every 4 pages to manipulate text item importance. The results showed that more successful readers learned and recalled more important information than less successful readers because they were more metacognitively aware of how and when to use the SAS. In Exp 2, perceptual and conceptual attention were measured for both more and less successful readers. More successful readers used significantly more conceptual attention while reading than did less successful readers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A,B seeing: The role of constructive processes in children's comprehension monitoring.

Using E. M. Markman's (1977, 1979) comprehension-monitoring paradigm, 192 skilled and less skilled readers from 3rd and 6th grade read stories containing inconsistent information. Half of the students constructed a storyboard representation of the story using plastic cutout figures placed on a background storyboard; half only read the text. Storyboard construction enhanced the integration of text propositions and increased inconsistency detection, particularly for less skilled readers. A story recall test also revealed significant effects of storyboard construction on the encoding and recall of critical propositions. These findings were interpreted in terms of the dual effects of storyboard construction on enhanced encoding and memory and its demands on proposition integration. Furthermore, it is proposed that storyboard construction can serve as a basis for effective intervention and training of proposition integration skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictable texts and interactive-compensatory hypotheses: Evaluating individual differences in reading ability, context use, and comprehension.

Examined the word-recognition and comprehension processes of 36 1st graders as they read a predictable text. Interactive-compensatory predictions related to comprehension were evaluated. Results suggest that when reading predictable texts, attention for both good and poor readers is available for comprehension processing but for different reasons. Consistent with predictions from the interactive-compensatory model by K. E. Stanovich (1980), good readers were able to attend to the meaning of a story because of automatic, context-free word-recognition skills. Poor readers were able to attend to the meaning of a story because of their automatic use of repetitive sentence context to facilitate word recognition. Thus, predictable texts may be appropriately used to provide comprehension opportunities for poorer readers. Predictable texts may give these students opportunities to engage in inferential reasoning and other comprehension processes, opportunities that infrequently occur because poor readers' attention is usually occupied by word-recognition demands. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation between early reading acquisition and word decoding with and without context: A longitudinal study of first-grade children.

The speed and accuracy with which 56 skilled or less skilled readers read words in and out of context was assessed in the fall and spring of the 1st grade by having both groups read random lists of words and coherent paragraphs. The context of the coherent paragraph facilitated word recognition performance to a greater degree in the spring than in the fall, and this developmental trend was similar for both groups. Although the word recognition performance of the skilled readers was superior to that of the less skilled readers on the coherent paragraphs, the former were also better at reading random lists of words. Data indicate that the less skilled readers were getting as much contextual facilitation from the coherent paragraph as were the skilled readers when the latter were at a similar level of context-free decoding ability. This finding, combined with other research, indicates that less skilled readers of this age perform relatively poorly on coherent paragraphs because of poor decoding skills, not because of a strategic inability to use context to facilitate word recognition. (67 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of interest in learning from scientific text and illustrations: On the distinction between emotional interest and cognitive interest.

A textbook lesson may be made more interesting by promoting emotional interest through adding entertaining text and illustrations or by promoting cognitive interest through adding signals for structural understanding such as summary illustrations with captions. In Experiment 1, skilled readers who read summary text and illustrations about the process of lightning performed worse on retention of important information and on transfer when entertaining text, illustrations, or both were added. In Experiment 2, skilled readers rated entertaining text and illustrations relatively high in emotional interest and low in cognitive interest and rated summary illustrations and text relatively low in emotional interest and high in cognitive interest. The results suggest benefits of cognitive interest over emotional interest for helping students learn scientific explanations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of headings by children for text search.

Examined the development of text search strategies in 144 4th, 6th, and 8th graders who were assigned to reading booklets with or without headings embedded in the reading material. Both younger and older Ss demonstrated evidence of efficient use of headings as locational aids when explicitly instructed on how to use them, and spontaneous use of headings as a search strategy was observed in half of the 4th and 6th graders and in most of the 8th graders. Ss at all levels read faster when asked to search for a specific fact than when asked to read the story line by line, indicating their awareness of when to skim. Findings suggest that by the 4th grade, children may have the cognitive skills to benefit from headings but may use these skills only in structured situations. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eye fixation patterns among dyslexic and normal readers: Effects of word length and word frequency.

Eye fixation patterns of 21 dyslexic and 21 younger nondyslexic readers were compared when they read aloud 2 texts. The study examined whether word-frequency and word-length effects previously found for skilled adult readers would generalize equally to younger dyslexic and nondyslexic readers. Significantly longer gaze durations and reinspection times were found for low-frequency and long words than for high-frequency and short words. The effects also showed up in the number of fixations on the target words. The effects did not differ significantly for the 2 experimental groups. The results run counter to the oculomotor dysfunction hypothesis of dyslexia. Instead, they support the view that both dyslexic and nondyslexic readers' eye fixation patterns reflect their difficulties in successfully identifying words in a text. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reading skill and the role of verbal experience in decoding.

Previous studies have shown that decoding speeds are generally faster for skilled readers than for less skilled readers. In Exp I with 66 3rd and 4th graders, this reader difference was found to be greater for pseudowords and 2-syllable units than for English words and 1-syllable units. Exps II and III, with 20 4th and 12 3rd graders, respectively, provided skilled and less-skilled readers with various types of experience with pseudowords prior to 2 decoding tests, vocalization latency and same–different decisions. Aural and printed experience with pseudowords provided significant increases in decoding speeds for both reader groups, but providing meanings for pseudowords as a part of the experiences added nothing. These effects were still present after 10 wks. Results suggest that decoding differences are not wholly attributable to prior experience with word units and that processes involving phonetic components may be involved. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eye Movements and Phonological Parafoveal Preview: Effects of Reading Skill.

Eye movements of skilled and less skilled readers were monitored as they read sentences containing a target word. The boundary paradigm was used such that when their eyes crossed an invisible boundary location, a preview word changed to the target word. The preview could either be identical to the target word (beach as a preview for beach), a homophone of the target word (beech as a preview for beach), an orthographic control (bench as a preview for beach), or an unrelated consonant string (jfzrp as a preview for beach). Consistent with prior research, skilled readers obtained more preview benefit from the homophone preview than from the orthographic preview. The less skilled readers, however, did not show such an effect. The results indicate that less skilled readers do not use phonological codes to integrate information across eye movements. Indeed, the results also indicate that less skilled readers do not show normal preview benefit effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reading mutilated text.

Conducted 2 experiments, one with 12 6th graders considered to be good readers and one with 12 junior high and high school students who had normal IQs but were 2 yrs behind on standardized reading scores. Ss read passages of text which had been mutilated by changing the shape of the words and/or the initial, medial, or final letter of words. When the shape had been maintained by replacing letters with letters that shared distinctive features and were visually confusable with them, less reading time was taken and fewer errors were made than when the shape had been altered by replacing letters with letters that were not visually confusable with them. In addition, mutilations to the beginning of a word were considerably more disruptive than mutilations to the middle or end of a word. Good readers and poor readers showed highly similar data patterns. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental models of learning to read Chinese words.

What is the nature of learning to read Chinese across grade levels? This study tested 199 kindergartners, 172 second graders, and 165 fifth graders on 12 different tasks purportedly tapping constructs representing phonological awareness, morphological awareness, orthographic processing, and subcharacter processing. Confirmatory factor analyses comparing alternative models of these 4 constituents of Chinese word reading revealed different patterns of metalinguistic underpinnings of children's word recognition across grade levels: The best-fitting model for kindergartners represented a print–nonprint dichotomy of constructs. In contrast, 2nd graders showed a fine-grained sensitivity to all 4 hypothesized constructs. Finally, the best-fitting model for 5th graders consisted of a phonological sensitivity construct and a broad lexical morphological–orthographic processing construct. Findings suggest that Hong Kong Chinese children progress from a basic understanding of print versus nonprint to a diversified sensitivity to varied word-reading skills, to a focus on meaning-based word recognition, to the relative exclusion of phonological sensitivity in more advanced readers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of word identification speed in skilled and less skilled beginning readers.

Three phases comprise the development of word reading skill: accuracy, automaticity, and speed. The 3rd phase is reached when components of the identification process (i.e., graphic, phonological, semantic) are unitized in memory for particular words. Attainment of this final phase was explored with 2 experiments. In Exp I with Ss from 1st-, 2nd-, and 4th-grade classes, skilled and less skilled readers identified familiar printed words, CVC nonwords, digits, and pictures. Attainment of unitized speeds to printed words was inferred if Ss identified words as rapidly as digits. This level was exhibited by skilled readers in all grades but by less skilled readers only in 4th grade. Unitized speed with CVCs was evident among 2nd- and 4th-grade skilled readers, but not among less skilled readers at any grade. In Exp II, 18 1st-grade and 19 2nd-grade poor readers practiced reading familiar words and CVCs. Practice boosted RTs to CVCs but not to words read accurately before training, and RTs to both remained slower than digit RTs, indicating that practice promotes the development of unitized speeds very slowly in less skilled readers. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recall of thematically relevant material by adolescent good and poor readers as a function of written versus oral presentation.

36 7th grade good and poor readers read one prose passage and listened to a 2nd one. They were tested, following each passage, for comprehension and recall of that passage. Under both reading and listening conditions, good readers recalled a greater proportion of the stories, and the likelihood of their recalling a particular unit was a clear function of the units's structural importance; poor readers recalled less of the stories, and their recall protocols were not as clearly related to variations in structural importance. Performance following reading was significantly correlated with performance following listening. Results indicate that poor readers suffer from a general comprehension deficit and that similar processes are involved in reading and listening comprehension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instructional effects on children's use of two levels of standards for evaluating their comprehension.

This study investigated whether providing children with instruction in the use of specific standards for evaluating their comprehension would generalize to their use of other standards and whether the instructional effects would be maintained over time. Eighty 4th graders, average and above-average readers, received instruction in using either 3 higher level "macrostructure" standards or 3 lower level "microstructure" standards, or else they received no instruction. On both an immediate and a delayed posttest, subjects read and evaluated passages containing problems requiring the use of all 6 standards. Children were more likely to identify problems of the types on which they were instructed, but both trained groups identified more noninstructed problems than the control group, indicating generalization of training. Moreover, the training advantage was maintained over time. Although better readers outperformed average readers, the benefits of instruction were equivalent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reading both high-coherence and low-coherence texts: Effects of text sequence and prior knowledge.

Determined if (1) the advantage for the low-coherence text is due to inferences made while reading, or alternatively, due to inferences generated during testing as a result of less information being available from the low-coherence text; (2) the inferences must rely on prior knowledge, or if inferences based on the text (or recently presented information) are sufficient; and (3) reading 2 different text versions is advantageous for readers. Ss were 80 university students who were assigned to 1 of 4 conditions representing if the Ss read the high-coherence text followed by either the high- or low-coherence text, or the low-coherence text followed by either the high-or the low-coherence text. Methodology involved reading the texts, answering questions about the text, and answering prior knowledge questions. The results indicate that high-knowledge readers benefited from the low-coherence only text when it was read first. Further, low-knowledge readers benefited from the high-coherence text, regardless of whether it was read first, second, or twice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)