Sea surface imaging with an across-track interferometric syntheticaperture radar: the SINEWAVE experiment

An across track interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) is used to image ocean waves. Across track InSAR data were acquired during the SAR INnterferometry Experiment for validation of ocean Wave imaging models (SINEWAVE) in the North Sea using an airborne X-band radar with horizontal polarization. A wind sea system was imaged at different flight levels and with different flight directions with respect to the ocean wave propagation direction. Simultaneously, ocean wave spectra were measured by a directional wave rider buoy. Thus, the experiment data comprises synthetic aperture radar (SAR) intensity, coherence, and phase images together with in situ measurements. As shown in a recent theoretical study by Schulz-Stellenfleth and Lehner (2001), across track InSAR provides distorted (bunched) digital elevation models (DEMs) of the sea surface. Using SINEWAVE data the DEM bunching mechanism is verified with in situ ocean wave measurements available for the first time. It is shown that significant waveheight as well as one-dimensional (1D) wavenumber spectra derived from bunched DEMs and buoy data are in good agreement for small nonlinearities. Peak wave directions and peak wavelength detected in bunched DEMs and SAR intensity images are compared with the buoy spectrum. Peak rotations of up to 30° with respect to the buoy spectrum are found depending on flight direction and flight level. Two-dimensional (2D) spectra of bunched DEMs, corresponding coherency maps, and SAR intensity images are intercompared. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of bunched DEM spectra is shown to be about 5 to 10 dB higher than the SNR of SAR intensity image spectra     

Simulation of ocean waves imaging by an along-track interferometricsynthetic aperture radar

A two-dimensional (2D) model for describing the imaging of ocean waves by an along-track interferometric synthetic aperture radar (AT-INSAR) is derived. It includes the modulation of the normalized radar cross section by the long waves, velocity bunching, and azimuthal image smear due to orbital acceleration associated with long waves and due to the orbital velocity spread within the AT-INSAR resolution cell (parameterized by the scene coherence time). By applying the Monte-Carlo method, AT-INSAR amplitude and phase image spectra are calculated for different sea states and radar configurations. The Monte-Carlo simulations show that velocity bunching affects the AT-INSAR imaging mechanism of ocean waves, and that a unimodal ocean wave spectrum may be mapped into a bimodal AT-INSAR phase image spectrum due to an interference between the velocity term and the velocity bunching term in the AT-INSAR imaging model. It is shown that the AT-INSAR imaging mechanism of ocean waves depends on the ratio of the scene coherence time and the time separation between the observations by the two antennas. If this ratio is larger than one, the AT-INSAR phase image spectra are distorted. Furthermore, the simulations show that the AT-INSAR phase image spectrum is quite insensitive to the ocean wave-radar modulation transfer function. Comparing AT-INSAR with conventional SAR imaging of ocean waves, the authors find that the azimuthal cut-off in AT-INSAR phase image spectra is shifted toward higher wavenumbers than in conventional SAR image spectra. This implies that AT-INSAR can resolve shorter azimuthal wavenumbers than conventional SAR. Thus the authors conclude that AT-INSAR phase images are better suited for measuring ocean waves spectra than conventional SAR images     

基于StereoSAR辅助的InSAR DEM重建方法研究

StereoSAR与InSAR是两种利用合成孔径雷达图像重建DEM的关键技术。InSAR利用SAR干涉像对的相位信息重建高程,具有DEM重建精度高的特点,但DEM重建精度受环境、时间等失相干因素影响较大;StereoSAR是利用SAR立体像对的幅度信息重建高程,尽管DEM重建理论精度比InSAR差,但受失相干因素影响小,并且可以在缺乏外部辅助高程信息时获取绝对DEM。在传统的InSAR处理中,干涉条纹密集区域相位解缠难度较大,存在相位解缠错误和错误传播现象,且在没有地面控制点或外部DEM的时难以获得绝对DEM。文中提出了一种迭代式的基于StereoSAR辅助的InSAR高精度DEM重建方法,该方法可以在缺乏外部高程信息时获得绝对DEM,降低干涉条纹密集区域相位解缠的难度,提高DEM重建精度。采用文中所提方法、传统InSAR方法及公开DEM辅助InSAR DEM重建方法,分别在地形复杂与平坦区域进行DEM重建,并用ICESat/GLAS及TanDEM-X DEM进行精度评估。DEM重建结果验证了文中所提方法的有效性,所提方法的DEM重建精度优于传统InSAR方法且与公开DEM辅助InSAR DEM重建方法精度相当。     

InSAR for estimation of changes in snow water equivalent of drysnow

This paper describes the theoretical relation between interferometric phase and changes in snow water equivalent (SWE) and show results from experiments using ERS-½ tandem data. The main scattering contribution from a dry snow cover is from the snow-ground interface. However, the radar wave will be refracted in the snow. Thus, only small changes in the snow properties between two interferometric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images will change the interferometric phase. This phase change is shown to introduce a significantly increase in the digital elevation model (DEM) height error, although no effects are observed on the degree of coherence. The phase change is also shown to affect the differential interferometric results and may wrongly be interpreted as range displacement. The presented theory and results implies that light snowfall and/or small changes in snow properties between interferometric SAR (InSAR) image acquisitions, may introduce significant height errors in DEM derived from glaciers, ice sheets, or bare ground, even in the case of high degree of coherence. Thus, meteorological observations in addition to degree of coherence must be considered when generating DEM in areas covered with snow or where snow fall is likely to have occurred     

Numerical Simulation of Synthetic Aperture Radar Image Spectra for Ocean Waves

A numerical model for predicting the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image of a moving ocean surface is described, and results are presented for two SIR-B data sets collected off the coast of Chile. Wave height spectra measured by the NASA radar ocean wave spectrometer (ROWS) were used as inputs to this model, and results are compared with actual SIR-B image spectra from orbits 91 and 106. Additional parametric variations are presented to illustrate the effects of nonlinearities in the imaging process.     

On the cross spectrum between individual-look synthetic apertureradar images of ocean waves

Cross spectra of individual-look synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images of the ocean surface are used to retrieve ocean wave spectra. A quasilinear transform is derived that relates ocean wave spectra to SAR image cross spectra. Furthermore, Monte Carlo simulations are also carried out for those cases where quasilinear imaging does not apply. It is shown that, as the time separation between the individual-look SAR images increases (within a limit determined by the Doppler bandwidth of the original single-look complex SAR image), the spectral energy density of the imaginary part of the SAR image cross spectra increases, while the spectral energy density of the real part decreases. The integration time has a small effect on the SAR image cross spectra as long as the integration time is large compared to the scene coherence time. In order to retrieve ocean wave spectra from SAR data by using cross-spectral analysis techniques, the authors suggest calculating two SAR image cross spectra: one with a short time separation and one with a large one between the individual-look SAR images. The real part of the SAR image cross spectra calculated from individual-look SAR images with the short time separation is used for retrieving ocean wave spectra, which have a 180° ambiguity in wave propagation direction. The imaginary part of the SAR image cross spectra calculated from individual-look SAR images with the long time separation is used for removing this 180° ambiguity     

Hasselmann方法从SAR图像反演海浪方向谱及其印证研究

介绍了从星载SAR海浪图像反演海浪方向谱的Hasselmann方法.在第一猜测谱的选取上采用了文氏谱的最新结果.设计了一个针对该方法的印证实验.反演所得的有效波高、有效波周期与浮标实测结果基本一致.     

利用Seasat SAR遥感图象分析海浪的一种新方法

本文提出一种从seasat合成孔径雷达SAR遥感图象中分析海浪波长和方向的新方法。该方法首先对遥感图象进行定向取样;然后进行一维傅氏变换,求出海浪相关函数;最后求出海浪波长和方向。这种新方法的精度和运算速度明显优于通常采用的二维傅氏变换分析法。     

Resolution of the ocean wave propagation direction in SAR imagery

There is an inherent 180° ambiguity in the derived wave propagation direction when using conventional spectral analysis techniques on standard synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image products. Three different techniques are successfully used to resolve this ambiguity in propagation direction using a single pass of airborne SAR data. The fact that the SAR is characterized by a large time-bandwidth product is used to advantage. A sequence of individual looks extracted from the Doppler spectrum represents images of the scene collected at a sequence of discretely delayed intervals of time. The techniques utilized include cross-correlation-based motion analysis of a pair of looks, phase weighting based upon a pair of looks and the ocean wave dispersion relation, and a three-dimensional spectral analysis. The phase weighting technique is also demonstrated for a Seasat SAR scene     

主星带辅星编队单基线InSAR定位、测高两种方法

该文对主星带辅星编队分布式SAR(Synthetic Aperture Radar)的空间几何关系和工作原理进行分析,指出主星带辅星编队SAR用于干涉测高和定位具有星载双站、较大斜视,空间基线等特点和难点,不能基于经典干涉SAR几何下的测高方法进行分析.提出基于多普勒中心频率和基于距离模型的两种定位和测高方法,仿真验证了两种定位和测高方法的正确性.指出由于多普勒中心频率方程只利用了合成孔径中心时刻附近的距离信息,而距离模型方程可以利用合成孔径时间内的所有距离信息,因此从定性角度来说,基于距离模型的定位测高方法优于基于多普勒中心频率的定位测高方法,仿真结果也说明了这一点.     

利用粗DEM信息的分布式卫星InSAR图像精配准算法

针对分布式卫星干涉合成孔径雷达图像配准中最大相干相关法在实际应用中缺乏理想相位估计值问题,提出利用粗数字高程模型反演干涉相位图作为理想相位估计值的处理方法。该方法通过在图像粗配准后利用主辅SAR图像的轨道信息、粗DEM以及主图像雷达成像几何反演出干涉条纹图,并将其作为理想干涉条纹估计值应用在最大相干相关法求取精配准偏移量中。此外,本文根据多基星载SAR雷达成像几何给出了利用粗DEM对SAR图像各像素对应目标点通用的空间定位方法及其干涉相位反演方法。ERS-1/2数据实验结果验证了本文方法的有效性。      

Directional wave spectra by inversion of ERS-1 synthetic apertureradar ocean imagery

An algorithm that extracts the directional ocean wave spectrum from synthetic aperture radar (SAR) ocean image spectra is implemented and applied to spaceborne C-band SAR data obtained from the ERS-1 satellite. The nonlinear iterative algorithm is based on the Hasselmann's forward spectral transform extended to include the range bunching effect. An analytic expression for the wave spectral increment is derived based on the exact gradient of the quasilinear ocean-to-SAR transform. Enhanced wave spectra have been obtained using first-guess wave spectra either from the numerical wave model WINCH operated by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute or synthesized from nondirectional wave data and meteorological conditions. The inverted spectra are compared to in situ directional wave data. It is concluded that the wave imagery from ERS-1 appears to be of excellent quality, and as soon as the backscatter modulation transfer functions are properly understood, satellite SAR data will be an important tool for enhancing and extending conventional wave measurements and results from numerical wave models     

The effect of orbital motions on synthetic aperture radar imagery of ocean waves

The formation of wave-like patterns in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images of the ocean surface caused by orbital motions is investigated. Furthermore, the degradation in azimuthal resolution due to these motions is calculated by applying a least square fit to the phase history. Formulas are given which describe the variation of intensity in azimuthal direction in the image plane as well as the degradation in azimuthal resolution as a function of ocean wave amplitude, wave frequency, direction of wave propagation, and radar wavelength, incidence angle, and integration time.     

The consequences of sampling variability on the estimation of wavenumber and propagation direction from spaceborne SAR image spectra

Even if it were true that SAR (synthetic aperture radar) ocean surface imagery provides a perfect noiseless representation of ocean surface wave height, each spectrum computed from such imagery would be but a single realization of the ensemble-mean ocean spectrum. There would be sampling variability associated with the parameters of dominant wave number and propagation direction extracted from such a spectrum. The present study addresses two questions: (i) what statistical distribution is applicable to the spectra of SAR ocean images? and (ii) what are the consequences of such statistics on the precision with which wave number and propagation direction can be extracted? An examination is made of spectra computed from ocean imagery acquired during the SIR-B (Shuttle Imaging Radar-B) mission     

Measurement of topography using polarimetric SAR images

A processing technique for polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data has been developed which produces profiles of terrain slopes and elevations in the azimuthal (or along-track) direction. This technique estimates the average shift in orientation angle of copolarization backscatter caused by azimuthal tilts of the scattering plane. Using P-band data, tests of this technique have been made for an area in the Black Forest near Villingen/Schwenningen in Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany. The radar measured slope and derived elevation profiles have low rms errors and high correlation values when compared with a stereo-photograph digital-elevation map (DEM) for the area. This algorithm is capable of adaptively making transitions from the forested areas to nearby regions with open-terrain. Subsequent tests of the algorithm have been conducted using polarimetric SAR L-band data for a mountainous, nonforested, region in the Mojave Desert (Ft. Irwin, CA) where an accurate DEM also was available. Complete elevation and slope mapping of the terrain in two dimensions using this technique is possible when azimuthal elevation profiles are produced throughout the range extent of the SAR image     

An analytical presentation of the monochromatic ocean wave image bya regular or an interferometric synthetic aperture radar

An asymptotic expansion of the theoretical model for simulation of a monochromatic ocean wave imaging by either regular synthetic aperture radar (SAR), or by along-track interferometric SAR (INSAR), and its analytical approximation are considered. The model takes into account the so-called velocity bunching imaging mechanism. The domains of validity of the simplified asymptotic and analytical expressions for both SAR and INSAR imaging of the ocean waves are established by comparing those solutions with the corresponding full numerical simulations. The analytical presentations of the SAR and the INSAR wave imaging obtained in the present study are used to understand better the limitations and the relative advantages of both techniques and to define the dimensionless parameters which govern the imaging process     

Comparison of Simulated and Measured Synthetic Aperture Radar Image Spectra with Buoy-Derived Ocean Wave Spectra During the Shuttle Imaging Radar B Mission

During the SIR-B mission over the North Sea, two successful synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data takes with simultaneous buoy measurements of ocean wave spectra have been obtained on October 6 and 8, 1984. On October 6, the SAR imaging of ocean waves was predicted as strongly nonlinear and on October 8 as almost linear. The SIR-B experiment confirmed the theoretical predictions. By applying the SAR imaging model based on velocity bunching theory the SAR image spectra are calculated from the measured ocean wave spectra. These calculated SAR image spectra are compared with the SIR-B derived SAR image spectra and it is shown that both agree quite well. This is considered as a further experimental confirmation for the velocity bunching model that has been proposed for describing SAR imaging of ocean surface waves.     

A wavelet-based algorithm to estimate ocean wave group parameters from radar images

In recent years, new remote sensing techniques have been developed to measure two-dimensional (2-D) sea surface elevation fields. The availability of these data has led to the necessity to extend the classical analysis methods for one-dimensional (1-D) buoy time series to two dimensions. This paper is concerned with the derivation of group parameters from 2-D sea surface elevation fields using a wavelet-based technique. Wave grouping is known to be an important factor in ship and offshore safety, as it plays a role in dangerous resonance phenomenons and the generation of extreme waves. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data are used for the analysis. The wavelet technique is introduced using synthetic ocean surfaces and simulated SAR data. It is shown that the group structure of the ocean wave field can be recovered from the SAR image if the nonlinear imaging effects are moderate. The method is applied to a global dataset of European Remote Sensing satellite (ERS-2) wave mode data. Different group parameters including the area covered by the largest group and the number of groups in a given area are calculated for over 33 000 SAR images. Global maps of the parameters are presented. For comparison, classical 1-D grouping parameters are calculated from colocated wave model data showing good overall agreement with the wavelet-derived parameters. ERS-2 image mode data are used to study wave fields in coastal areas. Waves approaching the island of Sylt in the North Sea are investigated, showing the potential of the wavelet technique to analyze the spatial wave dynamics associated with the bottom topography. Observations concerning changes of wavelength and group parameters are compared to linear wave theory.     

Digital elevation map generation using VHF-band SAR data in forested areas

The paper investigates digital elevation model (DEM) generation based on data from the ultra wideband coherent all radio band sensing (CARABAS) very high frequency (VRF)-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR). The results show excellent capability to penetrate forest areas, i.e., the generated DEMs are found to be close to the true ground height. A conventional DEM, based on stereo photography and surveying, and additional phase differential Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements have been used for comparison. The results in heavily vegetated areas (stem volume up to 600 m/sup 3//ha) show a mean height difference of less than 1.5 m and a root-mean-square (rms) error of less than 1.0 in compared to the conventional DEM. Stable backscattering properties allows us to use large baselines in order to obtain high height sensitivity. However, the amount of poor data due to low coherence increases with the increase of the baseline. The optimum baseline which balances these two effects is found to correspond to an incidence angle difference of 4/spl deg/-8/spl deg/.