Cognitive Load Theory and Library Research Guides

Online library research guides are instructional tools that most libraries provide for their patrons. With greater flexibility in Web programming and new products like Springshare's Libguides, librarians have multiple venues for guide creation. This paper seeks to assist research guide editors in assessing their guides based on cognitive load theory. This theory is based on the idea that cognitive capacity for learning is limited and that techniques can be developed to help learners avoid cognitive overload. Addressing the three main sources of cognitive load gives librarians a framework in which to create meaningful and useful research guides.     

Trainee teachers’ mental effort in learning spreadsheet through self-instructional module based on Cognitive Load Theory

A printed module should consist of media elements, namely text and pictures, which are self-instructional and could cater to the needs of the user. However, the typical platform of such visualization frequently overloads the limited working memory causing split attention and redundancy effects. The purpose of this study is to design and develop a printed self-instructional module based on Cognitive Load Theory in learning. Media elements are presented with minimal cognitive demands with an action- and task-oriented approach. Utilizing a modified Solomon Group design on 113 trainee teachers selected using purposive sampling, the effectiveness of the developed module was compared to the conventional module. Independent sample t-tests conducted to compare the time of completion in performance between the Control Group working on the conventional module and Group 2 working on the developed module show significant statistical differences in pre- and post-activities. Group 2 reported lower cognitive load scores on the rating scale and graphical plots using computational approach showed higher instructional efficiency. Thus, results show that trainees working on the developed printed module were able to perform faster and better with lower mental effort and had higher performance.     

Instructional interventions to enhance collaboration in powerful learning environments

The general aim of the contributions to this special issue was to foster learning in computer supported collaborative learning environments by designing instructional interventions that enhance collaboration between learners. Scripts and external representations were used as instructional interventions to support social and cognitive processes, respectively, during collaborative learning. Although, the interventions enhanced these social and cognitive processes, beneficial effects on learning outcomes were not always found. This discussion uses cognitive load theory, particularly the expertise reversal effect, to explain these results. It is concluded that the principles from this theory which pertains to individual learning, show great promise for the design of collaborative learning environments.     

A review of web-based collaborative learning: factors beyond technology

Abstract Web-based collaborative learning has a large potential for knowledge acquisition. However, it has different characteristics compared with conventional learning scenarios; especially with respect to the social communication situation, message exchange, cognitive load and participation of the learners. To cope with possible problems resulting from these characteristics suitable instructional means have to be considered, like collaborative learning methods, on-line moderation, appropriate learning tasks or computer-based visualisation tools.     

Individual differences in visuospatial working memory capacity influence the modality effect

The cognitive theory of multimedia learning postulates learning information in a dual-modality design is more effective than in a single modality, which is known as the modality effect. Research has found that the modality effect supports problem-solving learning, but not retention-based learning. This divergence in findings can be explained by the mediating effects of individual differences in visuospatial working memory. The current study confirmed the modality effect, showing superiority of dual-modality over single modality. Results revealed a significant interaction between visuospatial working memory and modality by retention, but no such interaction was obtained for problem solving. It was found that learners with low visuospatial working memory scored higher on retention in dual modality than these in single modality. Interestingly, no differences were found for learners with high visuospatial working memory on retention in both single- and dual-modality conditions. The findings may explain for whom the modality effect works in relation to retention. Finally, the analysis showed no association between modality conditions and subtypes of cognitive load, that is, extraneous and germane cognitive load.     

Instructional animations can be superior to statics when learning human motor skills

Based on the assumption of a working memory processor devoted to human movement, cognitive load theory is used to explore some conditions under which animated instructions are hypothesised to be more effective for learning than equivalent static graphics. Using paper-folding tasks dealing with human movement, results from three experiments confirmed our hypothesis, indicating a superiority of animation over static graphics. These results are discussed in terms of a working memory processor that may be facilitated by our mirror-neuron system and may explain why animated instructional animations are superior to static graphics for cognitively based tasks that involve human movement.     

How a semantic diagram tool influences transaction costs during collaborative problem solving

A semantic diagram tool is proposed in this study in order to structure collaborative problem solving (CPS) based on cognitive load theory (CLT). To investigate its effects on transaction cost and the deepening of user understandings, a comparative quasi‐experiment was designed and conducted with 49 participants from a university in East China. Analysis of group dialogic acts and self‐reported cognitive load showed that a semantic diagram tool can decrease transaction costs during CPS. It can thereby help collaborators invest less effort into those procedural conversations that are necessary for managing social interaction but which do not directly contribute to deepening collaborative learning in the task domain. Data analysis of pretested and posttested domain understanding suggested that learners achieved a greater depth of understanding after CPS supported by the semantic diagram tool. These findings are interpreted in terms of CLT. A semantic diagram tool can release the learner's limited working memory from procedural conversation, creating more working memory capacity for deepening problem understanding. Therefore, this study demonstrates one means whereby a semantic diagram tool functions as a promising technological support to structure CPS.     

Using cognitive load theory to structure computer‐based learning including MOOCs

A massive, open, online course (MOOC) is a form of computer‐based learning that offers open access, internet‐based education for unlimited numbers of participants. However, the general quality and utility of MOOCs has been criticized. Most MOOCs have been structured with minimal consideration of relevant aspects of human cognitive architecture and instructional design principles. This paper suggests cognitive load theory, with its roots embedded in our knowledge of human cognitive architecture and evolutionary educational psychology, is ideally placed to provide instructional design principles for all forms of computer‐based learning, including MOOCs. The paper outlines the theory and indicates instructional design principles that could be used to structure online learning and to provide an appropriate base for instructional design when using computer‐based learning.     

A novel method to monitoring changes in cognitive load in video‐based learning

One of the golden rules in instructional design methods is to optimize the use of working memory capacity and avoid cognitive overload. The study of cognitive load has historically relied on one's introspection. However, it is difficult to capture changes in cognitive load levels during learning sensitively. This paper suggests an approach to investigating dynamic changes in cognitive load by using a pupillometry. With the method, this study explores the effects of learners' prior knowledge and task complexity on cognitive load. An experiment was conducted on two groups of students (N = 19) with distinct levels of prior knowledge. In the experimental session, participants watched a video lecture on a mathematics proposition, while being eye‐tracked. The lecture consists of sections, which can be either a high task complexity or a low task complexity based on elements they have. Pupil dilations acquired in each section were used to explore the time course of cognitive load. To formulate cognitive load patterns, a time‐series clustering was used. The research conducted a chi‐square analysis to test differences in cognitive load patterns by prior knowledge and task complexity. Results show that pupil dilation patterns can be applied to monitor changes in cognitive load during learning.     

Differential benefits of situated instructional prompts

Learners often neglect support (glossaries, help sites etc.) in computer-based learning environments since they experience it as an unrelated add-on. We assumed that prompts presenting situated instructional support would lead to an increased use of help sites and glossary. Further it was assumed that situated instructional support would lead to a higher cognitive load of learners, which causes differential learning outcomes depending on learners’ general domain knowledge. To scrutinise the differential effect of situated instructional prompts we conducted an experiment with 69 students (undergraduates vs. graduates). Students learned either with a learning environment with or without prompts. As expected, learning with prompts resulted in an increased support usage. Furthermore, two interaction effects occurred. (1) Graduates learned slightly better with a program including prompts whereas undergraduates performed better without prompts. (2) Undergraduates stated a higher perceived cognitive load if they learned with a program with situated instructional prompts. In the group of graduates no differences occurred concerning the perceived cognitive load. The results are interpreted within the framework of cognitive load theory.     

Using Task-Induced Pupil Diameter and Blink Rate to Infer Cognitive Load

Minimizing user cognitive load is suggested as an integral part of human-centered design, where a more intuitive, easy to learn, and adaptive interface is desired. In this context, it is difficult to develop optimal strategies to improve the design without first knowing how user cognitive load fluctuates during interaction. In this study, we investigate how cognitive load measurement is affected by different task types from the perspective of the load theory of attention, using pupil diameter and blink measures. We induced five levels of cognitive load during low and high perceptual load tasks and found that although pupil diameter showed significant effects on cognitive load when the perceptual load was low, neither blink rate nor pupil diameter showed significant effects on cognitive load when the perceptual load was high. The results indicate that pupil diameter can index cognitive load only in the situation of low perceptual load and are the first to provide empirical support for the cognitive control aspect of the load theory of attention, in the context of cognitive load measurement. Meanwhile, blink is a better indicator of perceptual load than cognitive load. This study also implies that perceptual load should be considered in cognitive load measurement using pupil diameter and blink measures. Automatic detection of the type and level of load in this manner helps pave the way for better reasoning about user internal processes for human-centered interface design.     

Uncovering cognitive processes: Different techniques that can contribute to cognitive load research and instruction

This article discusses the use of different techniques for uncovering cognitive processes, for research and instructional purposes: verbal reporting, eye tracking, and concept mapping. It is argued here that applying these techniques in research inspired by cognitive load theory may increase our understanding of how and why well-known effects of instructional formats come about (e.g., split-attention, redundancy, or worked example effects) and refine or corroborate the proposed theoretical underpinnings of such effects. This knowledge can inform instructional design, and moreover, the effects of these techniques on learning can also be direct, by embedding the techniques in instruction.     

谈智能科学多媒体辅助教学设计

在多媒体辅助教学中,教学设计直接影响教学效果。认知心理学的发展,尤其是R.E.Mayer提出的多媒体教学理论给我们提供了一个研究教学设计规则的依据。描述同多媒体教学相关的认知心理学的几个基本理论,在此基础上提出一些关于提高多媒体辅助教学效果的教学设计方法。     

Cognitive load in hypertext reading: A review

A process model of hypertext reading was used to generate predictions about the effects of hypertext features on cognitive processing during text navigation and comprehension. We evaluated the predictions of the model with respect to the extant literature, focusing on studies in which versions of hypertexts were compared. Consistent with our predictions, the increased demands of decision-making and visual processing in hypertext impaired reading performance. Individual differences in readers, such as working memory capacity and prior knowledge, mediated the impact of hypertext features. For example, readers with low working memory and low prior knowledge were usually disadvantaged in hypertext. Some benefits were observed for learners with low prior knowledge, however, if the hypertext structure was hierarchical and consistent with that of the knowledge domain. We also surveyed the effectiveness of structural features designed to reduce cognitive load, including graphical overviews, restricted access to links, and visible link types. Complex graphical overviews did not reliably enable learning and navigation, whereas navigational support from restricted access and visible link types were helpful. We identified gaps in the empirical literature and suggested future studies to investigate cognitive processes in hypertext reading.     

When redundant on-screen text in multimedia technical instruction can interfere with learning

It is frequently assumed that presenting the same material in written and spoken form benefits learning and understanding. The present work provides a theoretical justification based on cognitive load theory, and empirical evidence based on controlled experiments, that this assumption can be incorrect. From a theoretical perspective, it is suggested that if learners are required to coordinate and simultaneously process redundant material such as written and spoken text, an excessive working memory load is generated. Three experiments involving a group of 25 technical apprentices compared the effects of simultaneously presenting the same written and auditory textual information as opposed to either temporally separating the two modes or eliminating one of the modes. The first two experiments demonstrated that nonconcurrent presentation of auditory and visual explanations of a diagram proved superior, in terms of ratings of mental load and test scores, to a concurrent presentation of the same explanations when instruction time was constrained. The 3rd experiment demonstrated that a concurrent presentation of identical auditory and visual technical text (without the presence of diagrams) was significantly less efficient in comparison with an auditory-only text. Actual or potential applications of this research include the design and evaluation of multimedia instructional systems and audiovisual displays.     

Cognitive engineering,cognitive augmentation,and information display

Abstract— From a perspective of cognitive engineering, this paper presents eight principles of good display design based on human cognition: (1) displays that divide attention will increase the cognitive load on working memory; (2) displays that continuously present the same information may compensate for the decay of short‐term memory; (3) displays that assist the viewer in mentally chunking information will decrease the cognitive load on working memory; (4) displays that present icons or images to direct attention to important visual stimuli will likely minimize inattentional blindness; (5) displays that help minimize attentional distractions and help focus attention on a given task will minimize the burden on working memory; (6) displays that present cues composed of strong singletons will capture and engage exogenous attention; (7) displays that help the viewer make a mental connection between an analogue and a target will assist in the induction of analogical reasoning; (8) displays that present over time multiple exposures consisting of statistical regularities may promote implicit learning and expertise development. Thus, information displays of the future can systematically engage high‐level human cognitive processes for purposes of improving human performance on a variety of tasks found in education, the military, and many other applications.     

Can instruction as such affect learning? The case of learner control

This study examined the role of learners’ perceptions in a learner-controlled computer-based learning environment. Computer-based learning environments that offer learner control (LC) to the learners are assumed to enhance motivation and learning outcomes. Recently, the focus of LC research has shifted from measuring the direct effect of LC on learning towards focusing on the underlying mechanisms of effective LC and determining under which conditions LC is most effective (Corbalan, Kester, & van Merriënboer, 2009). There is considerable agreement that learners’ skills, perceptions and the experienced cognitive load interactively affect LC as instructional strategy. For this study, 165 first-year university students participated in an on-line English learning course on verb conjugation. We investigated the effect of learners’ perceptions of LC by comparing the learning outcomes and motivation of learners that received additional instructions on learner control with a group of learners that did not receive additional instruction. Learner characteristics, such as prior knowledge, working memory capacity, self-efficacy and cognitive load, were taken into account. The results indicate that it is not instruction as such, but rather satisfaction with the degree of control that affects learning outcomes and motivation. We suggest that instruction as such does not suffice to enhance perception of control, and that learners’ perceptions play a mere role in the effectiveness of instructional strategies such as learner control.     

动态调整用户认知负荷的智能增强现实系统

把认知负荷测量技术集成进空间增强现实系统,提出动态调整用户认知负荷水平的智能空间增强现实系统（ISARS）系统。ISARS的目标是对用户在进行任务时的认知状态进行实时监测,并根据用户认知状态动态调整空间增强现实系统的增强信息,以使用户处于最佳工作状态并提高工作效率和保证工作质量。ISARS包含两个子系统：空间增强现实（SAR）子系统和认知负荷度量（CLM）子系统,SAR子系统把不同的增强信息投影到物体物理表面。CLM子系统对用户在工作过程中的认知负荷进行度量。实验结果表明,ISARS能够根据用户当前认知负荷水平对任务相关的要素进行自适应调整以更好适合用户实际工作能力,从而提高用户工作效率。     

Does cognitive load moderate the seductive details effect? A multimedia study

Several studies have shown that adding seductive details to instructional materials has a detrimental effect on learning. However, other studies have shown non-significant findings. The present study uses cognitive load theory as a theoretical framework to explain these controversial results in seductive details research. Using a 2 × 2 experimental design we asked a group of high-school students (N = 100) to learn about biology with a multimedia environment that manipulated the presence of seductive details (with vs. without) and the modality of the verbal information (high load, on-screen text vs. low load, narration). The findings showed that students’ learning performance was significantly higher when seductive details were presented under the low load condition (narration) as compared to all other conditions. The theoretical implications for understanding the effects of non-redundant and interesting, but irrelevant learning material are discussed and future research directions are presented.     

External and mental referencing of multiple representations

This article reports on two experimental studies that investigate the impact of integration and external activity on an instructional support method that encourages learners to systematically and interactively integrate multiple representations in the external environment. The experiments compared different kinds of relating representations to each other: Interactive integration of representations, interactive referencing without integration, prompted mental referencing without interactivity, and spontaneous referencing without interactivity or instruction to relate different representations to each other. Results suggest that step-by-step integration of information can reduce extraneous cognitive load in such a way that externally relating multiple representations can be managed within the realms of working memory capacity, whereas it is revealed that interactive referencing without integrating representations externally was just as effective as prompted mental referencing. The experiments clarify the importance of considering the different sources of cognitive load and the changes in these sources during learning.