Computation methods for one-dimensional bipolar charge injection

Kerr electrooptic field-mapping measurements have shown strong space charge effects in high-voltage stressed dielectrics, where the magnitude and sign of injected charge depends on electrode material. With appropriate choice of electrode material combinations and voltage polarity is possible to have uncharged, unipolar positively or negatively charged, or bipolar charged dielectrics. The bipolar homocharge case lowers the electric field at both electrodes due to space-charge shielding, and thus allows a higher voltage without breakdown. Using charge-transport analysis the authors consider the general case of charge injection from both electrodes and solve time and space dependences of the electric field and charge distributions and the time dependences of the terminal voltage and current. This analysis extends earlier work by including nonequilibrium charge dissociation and recombination so that the effective ohmic conductivity is not constant but varies with time and position due to local net charge density. Specific cases discussed are the open-circuit voltage decay of an initially charged capacitor, the charging and discharging by a Marx generator, and alternating voltage excitations     

Study on the properties of space charge and breakdown for epoxy–paper composites

The properties of space charge and breakdown in epoxy/paper composites are studied in this paper. The results show that the breakdown voltage of the epoxy/paper composite is lower than that of the epoxy under AC voltage but is higher under DC voltage. In order to explain this phenomenon, the space charge behavior is investigated. In epoxy/paper composites, the space charges easily accumulate at the epoxy/paper interface at low fields, and the electric field distribution is highly deformed. However, the amount of interface charges decreases with increasing voltage, leading to a more uniform field distribution in the composites. This behavior is different from that of the pure epoxy, resulting in the different breakdown properties of pure epoxy and epoxy/paper composites. © 2015 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The role of BaTiO3 in modifying the dc breakdownstrength of LDPE

In the present paper, the effect of the addition of fine particles 1%wt BaTiO₃ to plain low-density polyethylene (LDPE) on the short-term dc breakdown strength of LDPE is investigated. The Weibull plots are used to analyze the breakdown test results. This indicates that the addition of BaTiO₃ to LDPE has reduced the short-term dc breakdown strength of the doped material by ~16% and increased the dispersion of the breakdown data. The results also indicate that the Weibull exponent b has been reduced significantly for the doped material. Earlier measurements on the effects of the incorporation of BaTiO₃ in LDPE on dc current transients and space charge formation in LDPE are presented and correlated with the present results. Results from a variety of measurements using different techniques such as X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and optical microscopy are used in order to establish the effects of the incorporation of the additive in the polymer on its structure and morphology. The multiple role of BaTiO₃ additive in modifying the dc breakdown strength of LDPE is discussed in general terms of the existing breakdown theories in solid dielectrics. The combined effects of the additive on the different factors which influence the breakdown process in solids such as charge carrier mobility, charge carrier injection at the electrodes, space charge formation, polymer structure and morphology is explained and discussed. The present work introduces some novel elements in explaining breakdown processes in polymeric solid dielectrics by using an additive of known effects to provide an insight into the breakdown in LDPE. Moreover, an attempt is made to integrate results from different measurements using a multitude of techniques to yield a meaningful picture of the breakdown mechanism of LDPE     

Electrical properties of silane crosslinked polyethylene incomparison with DCP crosslinked polyethylene

The electrical properties such as water tree length, electrical conduction, ac breakdown strength and space charge of silane crosslinked polyethylene (SXLPE) were investigated, with a purpose to compare this material with ordinary dicumyl peroxide (DCP) crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE). Experimental results show that SXLPE has a smaller water tree length, much lower conduction current density, a little bit higher ac breakdown strength than XLPE, and on SXLPE only a very small homocharge is seen. The better behaviour of SXLPE under electric stress is attributed to the absence of residual curing byproducts present in XLPE and the change of chemical structure by grafting and curing reactions     

添加纳米MgO对交联聚乙烯中直流接地电树枝的影响

对交联聚乙烯(cross linked polyethylene, XLPE)材料与质量分数为05%的 MgO/XLPE纳米复合材料分别进行了直流接地电树枝实验与基于电声脉冲法的空间电荷测量。电树枝实验表明,正极性下MgO/XLPE纳米复合材料表现出更高的50%电树枝引发电压;空间电荷测量结果表明XLPE中有更多同极性电荷注入,说明纳米颗粒的添加阻碍了针尖处同极性电荷的注入与抽出,进而阻碍了电树枝引发。正极性下MgO/XLPE纳米复合材料表现出更小的平均电树枝长度与宽度,这是由于高场强区产生的载流子与纳米颗粒发生碰撞,导致电树枝生长较慢。此外,正极性下MgO/XLPE纳米复合材料中平均电树枝长宽比随电压升高下降更快,这是由于电树枝无法穿透纳米颗粒,只能从其表面绕过,导致了电树枝通道方向的改变与细小分枝的产生。     

Positive streamer propagation in large oil gaps: experimentalcharacterization of propagation modes

This paper presents an experimental study of positive streamer propagation in mineral oil, in large point-plane gaps under impulse voltage. A systematic investigation was done concerning the influence of gap distance (⩽35 cm), and voltage from streamer inception up to large overvoltages. The measurements presented concern breakdown voltage measurements, time to breakdown, visualization of streamers (streak and still photographs), electrical measurements (transient current, charge), light emission intensity. Streamers are characterized and then classified into different modes (2nd, 3rd and 4th modes) according to their propagation velocities up to more than 100 km/s. According to the applied voltage, transitions between modes are observed, and correlations are established between charge, shape, and streamer velocity. The physical mechanisms as well as practical consequences are then discussed     

Breakdown Process in Rod-to-Plane Gaps with DC Voltages

The breakdown process in rod-to-plane gaps, of which gap spacings were up to 80 cm under dc voltage, was investigated with multiple techniques using an image converter camera, five photomultipliers, and two still cameras, as well as with the measurements of voltage and current. The combination of a photomultiplier with an image converter camera allowed us to view for the first time the leader development with dc voltage. It is shown that breakdown proceeds, after well-known corona discharges, through streamers bridging the gap, leader development, and their bridging the gap to induce the intense return ionizing waves, to lead the formation of a spark channel. The charge density was estimated to be 2.7-24.5 pC/cm in corona discharges for the applied voltage of 170-410 kV and to be on the order of 10-8 C/ cm in the leader head.     

Polarization behavior of ferroelectricBi4Ti3O12 ceramics

The effect of oxidation and reduction atmospheres on the ferroelectric behavior of bismuth titanate was investigated. The effective surface density σ_eff of free charges in samples polarized by applying an electric field E_p=1 MV m^-1 at a temperature of 100°C for 90 min was determined by compensation voltage measurements. The thermally treated samples in oxidation atmospheres exhibit a significant decrease of σ_eff while those treated in a reducing atmosphere exhibit an increase accompanied by an improvement in the stability of the electret charge. Such observations indicate that the formation as well as the transformation of the electret state of Bi₄Ti₃O ₁₂ ceramics may be related to the enhancement and diminishing of oxygen vacancies. In all cases homocharge with a time independent sign was obtained     

温度梯度下双层油纸绝缘系统的空间电荷分布特性

换流变压器为直流高压输电系统中的重要设备,但因其运行工况的特殊性,其内部油纸等绝缘材料往往承受较大的内外温度差异作用。针对换流变压器中双层油纸绝缘系统存在的内外温度不同的温度梯度效应对油纸绝缘中空间电荷分布的影响,利用电声脉冲法测量了不同温度梯度下（Δθ=0、20、40°C）,电压分别为-3.4、-10.2、-20.4kV（即平均电场强度分别为10、30、60MV/m）时双层油纸中空间电荷在20min内随时间变化规律及电场分布。实验结果表明：在低场强下,上下电极均有明显的同极性电荷注入;温度梯度使低温侧出现异极性电荷,并且随着温度梯度的增大、电压的升高,低温侧异极性电荷越来越多,从而使低温侧的场强畸变越来越大;加压后,2层油纸界面处开始积累与上电极相同极性的电荷,并且界面处电荷量随温度梯度及电压的增大而增大,但电荷密度出现饱和现象。经分析可知,油纸界面起到阻挡正负电荷通过的作用,而温度对电极注入特性及试样电导特性的影响为温度梯度影响空间电荷分布的主要原因。     

Electrical properties of chemically modified polyethylenes

This report describes electrical properties such as space charge distribution, water treeing characteristics and ac breakdown strength in PE (polyethylene) modified by grafting and blending techniques. A control PE shows heterocharge. In AA (acrylic acid)-grafted PE (LDPE-g-AA), the heterocharge observed in PE decreases at low AA contents and homocharge is observed at high AA contents. In NBA (n-butyl acrylate)-grafted PE (LDPE-g-NBA), on the other hand, this heterocharge gets larger at all graft ratios to 0.12%. However, these components decrease the water tree length measured under specific conditions and increase ac breakdown strength. Details of the results are described and their origins are discussed. The results obtained with the LDPE-g-NBA are compared with those of PE/ethylene NBA copolymer blends     

Bipolar Charge Trapping Induced Anomalous Negative Bias-Temperature Instability in HfSiON Gate Dielectric pMOSFETs

Negative bias-temperature (NBT) stress-induced drain current instability in a pMOSFET with a gate stack is investigated by using a fast transient measurement technique. We find that in certain stress conditions, the NBT-induced current instability evolves from enhancement mode to degradation mode, giving rise to an anomalous turn-around characteristic with stress time and stress gate voltage. Persistent poststress drain current degradation is found in a pMOSFET, as opposed to drain current recovery in its n-type MOSFET counterpart. A bipolar charge trapping model along with trap generation in a HfSiON gate dielectric is proposed to account for the observed phenomena. Poststress single charge emissions from trap states in HfSiON are characterized. Charge pumping and carrier separation measurements are performed to support our model. The impact of NBT stress voltage, temperature, and time on drain current instability mode is evaluated.     

Strain effects in SiN-passivated GaN-based HEMT devices

The use of a passivating layer can reduce or even eliminate surface effects responsible for limiting both the RF current and breakdown voltage of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs. To study the effect of passivation on electrical characteristics of GaN-based devices, we have developed a macroscopic model of strain in SiN/AlGaN/GaN heterostructure, considering the system as a free-standing one. Basing on the strain results, we have calculated the strain map for a SiN-passivated structure and the electron sheet charge density in the channel. Results have been compared with experimental measurements and with an alternative passivation model.     

Space charge distributions in EPDM compounds

The formation of space charge in EPDM (ethylene-propylene-diene terpolymer) filled with ATH (alumina trihydrate) or clay has been investigated by measuring charge distributions. It is found that the type and amount of space charge developed in crosslinked EPDM or its compounds is governed by the type of diene in EPDM and the composition of the semicon electrodes. The amount of charge in the EPDM compounds containing 1,4-hexadiene decreases with an increase of ATH content and increases with an increase of clay content. The heat treatment of EPDM compounds in a vacuum oven increases the amount of space charge in them. These features were explained by the effects of low molecular weight molecules present at the surface of fillers. It is found that the homocharge increases as the clay content increases, while EVA decreases the homocharge in the EPDM compounds. Possible reasons for these results are discussed     

Influence of thermal treatment and residues on space charge accumulation in XLPE for DC power cable application

The effects of cross-linking by-products (residues) quantity and thermal treatment on space charge accumulation and decay in manufacturer modified XLPEs for DC power cable application have been investigated using the pulsed electro-acoustic technique. The threshold stress for space charge generation among the modified and reference XLPEs during voltage-ramping was found to show considerable variation and to depend upon the material and the amount of residue present. However, the modified XLPE material was found to exhibit a higher threshold for space charge accumulation than the reference XLPE whatever the conditions. De-gassed samples were found to exhibit the highest threshold stress, with that of the modified de-gassed XLPE accumulating no space charge at all even after 24 h stressing at 70 kV. In general heterocharge regions were formed when the residues were present and homocharge or no charge was formed when the residues were removed by degassing. Differences were also found in the space charge decay following short-circuit (volts-off), with the decay of heterocharge being rapid, whereas that of homocharge being slow. The charge accumulations have been tentatively explained by the mechanisms of ion-pair separation when residues are present, and interfacial injection when residues are absent. Decay of the heterocharge is governed by ion-pair displacement just as the generation and will have a similar time scale. In contrast homocharge decay will be governed by charge de-trapping and extend to time scales well beyond that of injection for charge in the deepest traps     

高压静电设备中倍压整流电路的工作状态分析

从电压、电荷、能量等各个角度详细分析了理想倍压整流电路中倍压电容上的电压关系。结果表明静电电源设备倍压整流电路正常工作下输出电压波动很小,但当除尘电场击穿放电时,其输出电流出现一浪涌,其幅值可超过正常电流的几十倍,引起高压除尘装置供电设备发生故障。     

陷阱参数及其与交联聚乙烯电缆绝缘状态（英文）

Space charge issues have raised many attentions in recent years,especially in high voltage direct current(HVDC)application.Space charge accumulation in insulation system will give rise to acceleration of ageing and even cause premature failure of the material.However,from another angle,space charge might be also considered as a diagnostic tool of ageing for insulation materials.In this paper,a trapping-detrapping model has been developed to estimate trapping parameters of cross-linked polyethylene(XLPE)cable sections,which were taken from different HVAC operation conditions of 12 years and 8 years.The results reveal that,for both cable sections,samples from the inner location have the greatest trap density and the deepest trap depth.Additionally,breakdown strength tests and FTIR(Fourier-transform infrared)measurements on those samples have been carried out.From FTIR measurement results,the degree of oxidation among three layers could be found by the carbonyl index values.The oxidation degree of aged cable at the outer layer is higher than that at the other two layers probably because of the most sufficient contact with oxygen.Also,it has been noticed that the results from these measurements show some correlations with the estimated trapping parameters,especially for breakdown strength.     

±320kV直流电缆交联聚乙烯/三元乙丙橡胶附件击穿特性

高压直流电缆接头与终端为电缆系统故障的多发点,其击穿强度为直流输电系统安全稳定运行的重要基础。文中以±320 kV高压直流海底电缆中交联聚乙烯(cross linked polyethylene,XLPE)/三元乙丙橡胶(ethylene propylene diene monomer,EPDM)附件为研究对象。首先,研究电缆及附件负荷循环耐压试验,发现附件界面为击穿薄弱环节;其次,研究绝缘材料电导率随温度变化特性对电场分布的影响规律,通过有限元仿真模拟电缆空载和满载运行时附件的温度分布与电场分布,发现最大电场出现在电缆绝缘靠近附件应力锥一侧,为29.5 kV/mm,低于附件材料的击穿场强;最后,研究界面在直流电场下空间电荷特性对电场分布规律的影响,通过电声脉冲法测试复合叠层片状样品介质界面的空间电荷及其电场分布,发现场强畸变率约为100%~200%。同材料本征绝缘匹配相比,界面空间电荷积聚对附件内部电场造成的畸变程度更严重,在后续附件提升中应更注重开发抑制空间电荷的绝缘材料。     

Hydrogen-induced changes in the breakdown voltage of InP HEMTs

In this work, electrical measurements show that the breakdown voltage, BV/sub DG/, of InP HEMTs increases following exposure to H/sub 2/. This BV/sub DG/ shift is nonrecoverable. The increase in BV/sub DG/ is found to be due to a decrease in the carrier concentration in the extrinsic portion of the device. We provide evidence that H/sub 2/ reacts with the exposed InAlAs surface in the extrinsic region next to the gate, changing the underlying carrier concentration. Hall measurements of capped and uncapped HEMT samples show that the decrease in sheet carrier concentration can be attributed to a modification of the exposed InAlAs surface. Consistent with this, XPS experiments on uncapped heterostructures give evidence of As loss from the InAlAs surface upon exposure to hydrogen.     

Self-controlled pre-breakdown discharges in planar symmetry

In measurements on Teflon FEP films charged in ⩽50 μm air gaps by microsecond impulse voltages, a uniform charge deposition on the films was observed. A regular increase of the film surface potential from a threshold value of the peak impulse voltage was found. However, for 300 μm air gap it was observed that abrupt charging occurs at a lower threshold voltage, indicating breakdown, and the charge deposition on the film becomes nonuniform. The behavior in air gaps <50 μm is explained here using Townsend's theory of pre-discharges. It is shown how and why the interposed insulating film acts to make the system self-controlled, thus avoiding breakdown in the air gap, despite the large values of the applied peak impulse voltage     

Effects of crosslinking byproducts on space charge formation in crosslinked polyethylene

Space charge is formed in cables insulated with crosslinked polyethylene. It has not been clear whether the crosslinking byproducts or the crosslinked polymer morphology is responsible for the space charge formation. In order to clarify this point additive-free noncrosslinked low-density polyethylene, additive-free crosslinked polyethylene, and degassed crosslinked polyethylene were soaked in the crosslinking byproducts and the space charge distribution was measured after DC voltage application. Samples tested are divided into two categories. The first category is a soaked single-layered sheet and the second category is a two-layered specimen consisting of a soaked sheet and a nonsoaked sheet. As a result, the following conclusions were obtained. (1) Cumyl alcohol is responsible for homocharge layers in front of the electrodes in both low-density and crosslinked polyethylene sheets. (2) Acetophenone is responsible for heterocharge formation in crosslinked polyethylene, presumably as a synergistic effect with water. (3) alpha -methylstyrene has no effect on space charge formation in low-density polyethylene, while it assists charge trapping in crosslinked polyethylene. (4) Charge trapping occurs easier in degassed crosslinked polyethylene than in low-density polyethylene, probably because of carbonyl groups induced by crosslinking