Instructional demands and ratings of overt and hidden pain during hypnotic analgesia.

16 highly hypnotizable (Carlton University Responsiveness to Suggestion Scale) undergraduates rated the intensity of cold pressor pain during a baseline trial and again during 3 hypnotic analgesia trials. During each analgesia trial, Ss were instructed to give overt reports that reflected consciously experienced pain and covert reports that reflected the intensity of "hidden" pain. Treatment instructions administered before the 1st analgesia trial did not specify the relationship between overt and covert pain. Instructions given before the remaining 2 analgesia trials indicated that hidden pain would be either more or less intense than overt pain. Until they were given explicit information about the relative intensities of the pain, Ss reported no differences in the magnitude of overt and covert pain, contrary to the dissociation hypothesis of hypnotic analgesia. Consistent with social psychological formulations of the hidden observer phenomenon, Ss reported both higher covert than overt pain and lower covert than overt pain, depending on the instructions they were administered. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improved obstetric outcomes using hypnotic analgesia and skill mastery combined with childbirth education.

The benefits of hypnotic analgesia as an adjunct to childbirth education were studied in 60 nulliparous women. Subjects were divided into high and low hypnotic susceptibility groups before receiving 6 sessions of childbirth education and skill mastery using an ischemic pain task. Half of the Ss in each group received a hypnotic induction at the beginning of each session; the remaining control Ss received relaxation and breathing exercises typically used in childbirth education. Both hypnotic Ss and highly susceptible Ss reported reduced pain. Hypnotically prepared births had shorter Stage 1 labors, less medication, higher Apgar scores, and more frequent spontaneous deliveries than control Ss' births. Highly susceptible, hypnotically treated women had lower depression scores after birth than women in the other 3 groups. We propose that repeated skill mastery facilitated the effectiveness of hypnosis in our study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnosis, suggestion, and placebo in the reduction of experimental pain.

Two experiments compared placebo and hypnotic analgesia in high and low hypnotizable subjects. Experiment 1 demonstrated that hypnotic and placebo analgesia were equally ineffective in low hypnotizables, but that hypnotic analgesia was much more effective than placebo analgesia in high hypnotizables. Experiment 2 replicated these results, but also included low and high hypnotizables who were given a nonhypnotic suggestion for analgesia. Both the low and high hypnotizables in this group reported greater suggested than placebo analgesia and as much suggested analgesia as high hypnotizable hypnotic subjects. Both experiments found substantial discrepancies between the amount of pain reduction subjects expected from the various treatments and the amount of pain reduction they actually reported following exposure to those treatments. In Experiment 2, subjects in all treatments who reduced reported pain engaged in more cognitive coping and less catastrophizing than those who did not reduce pain. Theoretical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expert judgments of hypnosis from subjective state reports.

Suggestibility was assessed in 60 college students after a traditional hypnotic induction, an alert induction, progressive relaxation training, or instruction in goal-directed imagery. Responsiveness to suggestion did not differ between groups. Ss also generated open-ended reports of their states of awareness and of their experience of 3 hypnotic suggestions. A sample of these reports from 24 moderately to highly suggestible Ss were evaluated by 18 experts in the field of hypnosis. Expert ratings of Ss' open-ended reports indicated that (1) traditional hypnotic inductions produce a state of consciousness that is indistinguishable from nonhypnotic relaxation training, (2) the subjective experience of hypnotic suggestions after imagination training is indistinguishable from that after hypnotic inductions, and (3) suggestibility is unrelated to state of consciousness as assessed by experts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Uncancelled hypnotic suggestions: The effects of hypnotic depth and hypnotic skill on their posthypnotic persistence.

Conducted 2 experiments to evaluate the degree to which hypnotic depth and hypnotic skill influence the posthypnotic persistence of an uncancelled suggestion. Each experiment employed 24 college students (8 high susceptible, 8 medium susceptible, and 8 low susceptible, based on Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A, scores). The induction of hypnosis in Exp I was by videotape; in Exp II, an almost identical induction was conducted individually by the experimenter. In both experiments, an arm analgesia item was left uncancelled. Over the 2 experiments, analgesia persisted posthypnotically for 20% of the highly susceptible Ss. These Ss differed from the highly susceptible Ss not manifesting the phenomenon in having significantly better hypnotic analgesia and greater hypnotic depth. Results suggest that posthypnotic persistence of an uncancelled suggestion was confined to a minority of highly hypnotizable Ss. Persistence appears to have affinities with other low-incidence hypnotic phenomena to which only the top 2–3% of Ss in the range of hypnotic susceptibility respond. The majority of highly susceptible Ss either cancelled an uncancelled suggestion themselves, or else the suggestion faded with time. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pseudomemory in hypnotized and task-motivated subjects.

Highly hypnotizable hypnotized (HYP; n?=?16) and task motivated (TM; n?=?13) Ss received pseudomemory suggestions (M. T. Orne, 1979). TM Ss reported being more awake and motivated than did HYP Ss and were more likely to pass the target noise suggestion. However, 69% of Ss in both conditions who passed the noise suggestion reported pseudomemories. Pseudomemory rate (69% for HYP Ss and 46% for TM Ss) was not reduced by informing Ss that they could distinguish reality and fantasy in a state of deep concentration. At final inquiry, after deep concentration, pseudomemories remained stable (75% for HYP Ss and 54% for TM Ss). As predicted, HYP Ss reported more unsuggested noises and more pseudomemories of novel noises than did TM Ss. Ss who reported pseudomemories were more confident in the accuracy of their memories than were Ss who reported that the suggested noises were imagined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moderating effects of contextual variables on the relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and suggested analgesia.

Assessed 75 undergraduates high, medium, or low on hypnotic susceptibility (the Carleton University Responsiveness to Suggestion Scale) on the cold pressor task before and after 1 of 3 instructional treatments. The treatments were (a) brief instructions to try to reduce pain, (b) the same analgesia instructions preceded by a hypnotic induction procedure, and (c) no hypnotic induction or instructions. In the hypnotic treatment, susceptibility correlated significantly with reductions in reported pain, and high-susceptible Ss reported significantly larger pain reductions than did control Ss. In the instruction-alone treatment, there was no significant relationship between susceptibility and pain reduction, and Ss at all 3 susceptibility levels reduced reported pain significantly more than did controls and as much as did high-susceptible hypnotic Ss. Findings suggest that the correlation between hypnotic susceptibility and hypnotic analgesia is moderated by Ss' attitudes and expectancies concerning their own performance in situations defined as related to hypnosis. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pain and dissociation in the cold pressor test: A study of hypnotic analgesia with "hidden reports" through automatic key pressing and automatic talking.

To test whether pain blocked by hypnotic analgesia may still be perceived at some level, 20 highly hypnotizable undergraduates participated in an experiment involving cold pressor pain in the normal condition and in hypnotically suggested analgesia. 3 reports were obtained reflecting felt pain within the hypnotic analgesia condition: the usual verbal report on a numerical scale, a manual report by "automatic key pressing," and a retrospective verbal report through "automatic talking." 9 Ss who were amnesic for both keypressing and automatic talking reported more pain in the automatic (hidden) reports than in their usual verbal reports. 8 of these 9, following release of amnesia, had a clear perception of 2 levels of awareness of the pain: the usual hypnotic experience of pain attenuated by analgesia suggestions, and a knowledge at another level of a more severe pain. In no case, however, did an S give a retrospective report of normal suffering at this "hidden" level. The hypnotically analgesic S may have reported no pain verbally because he was amnesic for it; when amnesia was removed he recalled the sensory pain, but without a suffering component, because suffering apparently did not occur. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Covert pain in hypnotic analgesia: Its reality as tested by the real-simulator design.

Simulation of covert pain, as reported by the hidden observer method, proved very successful for 12 simulator Ss known to be unable to reduce overtly reported pain through hypnotic analgesia procedures, as compared with 12 highly hypnotizable Ss whose pain had been shown to be reduced by at least one third through hypnotic analgesia suggestions. Preliminary practice in dissociation (and in simulated dissociation) through amnesia for a word list and through attempted automatic writing also demonstrated successful simulation. However, in an honesty inquiry by a staff member not participating as a hypnotist-experimenter, no simulator claimed to have been amnesic, to have performed automatic writing, or to have reduced pain beyond the reduction that could be achieved through waking suggestion. The methods by which the successful simulation was achieved were explored in subsequent interviews. In contrast with the simulators, no highly hypnotizable S modified any earlier report on the basis of the honesty inquiry. Results confirm the importance of postexperimental honesty interrogation when the real–simulator design is used. Results also lend support to the reality of the covert experience of pain in the absence of its overt experience in hypnotic analgesia. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnosis and the dream hidden observer: primary process and demand characteristics

In Study 1, virtuoso (n = 13; passed more than 10 suggestions on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A [HGSHS:A] and Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C), high hypnotizable (n = 14; passed more than 8 suggestions on the HGSHS:A), and medium hypnotizable (n = 17; passed 4-8 suggestions on the HGSHS:A) Ss were administered a hypnotic dream suggestion followed by a "dream hidden observer" suggestion (i.e., access hidden part; have new thoughts and images pertinent to dream). The majority of Ss reported dreams (81.8%) and hidden observers (80%), with hidden reports being characterized by more personal content, less primary processes, and poorer recall than dream reports. Study 2 replicated major findings. Although hypnotized (n = 18) and low hypnotizable simulating Ss (n = 17) responded comparably on most measures, hypnotizable Ss' dreams contained more primary process than did simulating Ss, providing support for M. R. Nash's (1991) psychoanalytic model.     

Hypnotic analgesia: A preliminary investigation of quantitated hemispheric electroencephalographic and attentional correlates.

The effects of hypnotically induced analgesia were studied in 6 undergraduate Ss rated as moderately hypnotizable and 5 Ss rated as highly hypnotizable. Subjective pain reports and EEG activation were recorded during 1-min periods of cold-pressor stimulation. Both groups reported decreased pain during hypnosis, but the decrease was greater for the highly hypnotizable group. During hypnotic analgesia, immersion of either the right or the left hand in ice water was correlated with contralateral EEG activation for moderately hypnotizable but not for highly hypnotizable Ss. Lack of contralateral shift was correlated for the whole sample and within groups with success on an attentional task related by previous research to hypnotizability as well as with reports of reduced pain. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reality versus suggestion: Pseudomemory in hypnotizable and simulating subjects.

Assigned hypnotizable (N?=?56) and simulating Ss (N?=?44) to 1 of 4 conditions: heard a phone ring and conversation, received a suggestion to hear a phone ring and conversation, received a suggestion and heard a phone ring and conversation, or neither heard a phone ring nor received a suggestion. Hypnotizable Ss successfully discriminated objective events from suggested sources of input. When Ss received a suggestion to hear a phone ring, only 11.5% indicated it actually rang in their open-ended reports; in response to a forced-choice question, none did so. In spontaneous reports, none of the hypnotizable Ss who heard a phone ring indicated it was suggested; only one did so in response to a forced-choice item (vs. 2 simulators). In the no-phone/no-suggestion condition, more simulators than hypnotizable Ss indicated that a phone rang or was suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The reality of hypnotic analgesia: A comparison of highly hypnotizables with simulators.

Used the real–simulator design to investigate the reality of hypnotic analgesia when normally painful stress was induced by immersing a hand and forearm in circulating ice water (cold pressor response). 2 groups of Ss (12 14–22 yr old selected highly hypnotizable "reals" and 12 13–27 yr old insusceptible "simulators"), determined by the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (Form A) and the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (Form C), participated in a single session during which suggestions for pain reduction were given in both the waking and hypnotic conditions. The simulators proved remarkably successful in predicting and imitating the responses of the reals, except for a tendency to overreact and exaggerate compliance with suggestions. The genuineness of hypnotic analgesia was attested, however, by the differences between the honesty reports of the reals and those of the simulators who attempted to behave as hypnotized Ss are expected to do. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of hypnotic susceptibility, suggestions for analgesia, and the utilization of cognitive strategies on the reduction of pain.

96 undergraduates were stratified in terms of hypnotic susceptibility (high, medium, and low) on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A. Ss next had 1 arm immersed in ice water for a 60-sec pretest and, afterward, were assigned to 1 of 4 treatments: (a) hypnosis plus analgesia suggestion, (b) hypnosis alone, (c) suggestion alone, or (d) no hypnosis—no suggestion. Ss were retested in ice water and then interviewed about their experiences during the retest. High susceptibles reported the use of more cognitive strategies during the retest and showed greater pretest-to retest pain magnitude reductions than did low susceptibles. Similar effects occurred for Ss given, as opposed to not given, a suggestion. The hypnosis variable, however, failed to affect either strategy use or pain magnitude. Strategy use facilitated pain reduction only for Ss who did not worry about and did not exaggerate the unpleasantness of the situation (i.e., noncatastrophizers). The few Ss who showed dramatic pretest-to-retest reductions in pain magnitude (50% reduction or more) were all high-susceptible noncatastrophizers who used one or more cognitive strategies. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pseudomemory effects over time in the hypnotic setting.

Highly (n?=?36), moderately (n?=?26), and low (n?=?48) susceptible Ss were administered either hypnosis or waking instruction to examine the hypothesis that pseudomemory will occur for hypnotic Ss as long as 2 wks after suggestions are given for accepting false events. Accuracy and confidence of memory were measured for all Ss, and memory was examined for free recall, structured recall, and recognition. Results indicated persistence of pseudomemory for the 2-wk period for both highly and moderately susceptible Ss. Data highlighted the multifaceted operation of skill, contextual, and state instruction factors, and a hypothesis that ambiguity of communication when suggestion is delivered plays a part in the maintenance of pseudomemory over time is offered for further testing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of instructional set on attributions of nonvolition during hypnotic and nonhypnotic analgesia.

Fifty highly hypnotizable subjects were assigned to four treatment groups or a no-treatment control group and then underwent two pain stimulation trials. Half the treated subjects were administered hypnotic analgesia, half waking analgesia. Within hypnotic and nonhypnotic treatments, half the subjects were given actively worded analgesia instructions, half passively worded instructions. Subjects in the four treated groups reported equivalent pain reduction and equivalent use of coping imagery, although hypnotic subjects rated themselves as more deeply hypnotized than did nonhypnotized subjects. Both hypnotic and nonhypnotic subjects given passive instructions rated their pain reduction as occurring involuntarily, whereas those given active instructions reported that their pain was reduced through their active use of coping strategies. These findings support sociocognitive formulations of hypnotic responding that view ratings of involuntariness as reflecting contextually guided interpretations of behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnosis, reporting bias, and suggested negative hallucinations.

Examined the role of reporting bias in hypnotic negative hallucinations by using a paradigm in which reporting bias was assessed independently of perceptual change. In Exp 1, highly hypnotizable Ss reported significant loudness reductions when tested for hypnotic deafness. Later, however, these Ss biased their reported loudness reductions in the absence of perceptual change, and their reporting bias scores were almost as large as their hypnotic deafness reports. Ss also biased their ratings of strategy use. In Exp 2, ratings of blindness given in response to a hypnotic negative visual hallucination suggestion were significantly correlated with reporting bias scores obtained in this paradigm. Although hypnotic blindness and hypnotic deafness correlated significantly, the partial correlation between these variables was nonsignificant when reporting bias scores were statistically controlled. Theoretical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does counterpain imagery mediate hypnotic analgesia?

Sixty-six high hypnotizable individuals received a baseline exposure to pain and 2 counterbalanced hypnotic analgesia conditions. Standard analgesia invoked counterpain imagery, whereas imageless analgesia proscribed imagery. The mean level of pain reduction in these 2 conditions was virtually identical and significantly less than the pain rated in the baseline condition. Furthermore, cognitions experienced as active efforts to cope with the pain occurred far less often and were associated with less pain reduction than cognitions experienced as passive concomitants of pain reduction. The results cast considerable doubt on the widespread assumption that imaginative involvement mediates hypnotic responding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detection of simulated hypnotic amnesia.

Highly hypnotizable nonsimulators and high- and low-hypnotizable simulators of hypnosis were administered a hypnotic amnesia suggestion and tested for recall and recognition of a previously learned word list. Simulators exhibited higher levels of recall and recognition amnesia than nonsimulators. Most important, simulators recognized "forgotten" words at lower levels than expected by chance significantly more often than did nonsimulators. Implications for the detection of simulated amnesia in clinical samples are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of suggestion and distraction on reported pain in subjects high and low on hypnotic susceptibility.

84 18–30 yr old undergraduates high or low in hypnotic susceptibility (the Carleton University Responsiveness to Suggestion Scale) immersed an arm in ice water on 2 separate trials. Within susceptibility levels, Ss were randomly assigned to 3 groups, with an equal number in each group. Between trials, Ss in 1 group were administered a suggestion to imagine their hand as numb and insensitive, those in a 2nd group practiced a distraction task to be used during the 2nd trial (shadowing words), and those in a 3rd group (controls) received no special instructions. The suggestion significantly lowered rated pain in high but not in low susceptibles. Contrary to dissociation accounts of hypnotic susceptibility and suggested analgesia, low-susceptible shadowers showed as much reduction in rated pain as high susceptibles given suggestion. The social psychology of the experimental pain assessment situation is discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)