Perceived public stigma and the willingness to seek counseling: The mediating roles of self-stigma and attitudes toward counseling.

This study examined the mediating effects of the self-stigma associated with seeking counseling and attitudes toward seeking counseling on the link between perceived public stigma and willingness to seek counseling for psychological and interpersonal concerns. Structural equation modeling of data from 676 undergraduates indicated that the link between perceived public stigma and willingness to seek counseling was fully mediated by self-stigma and attitudes. Perceptions of public stigma contributed to the experience of self-stigma, which, in turn, influenced help-seeking attitudes and eventually help-seeking willingness. Furthermore, 57% of the variance in attitudes toward counseling and 34% of the variance in willingness to seek counseling for psychological and interpersonal concerns were accounted for in the proposed model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental illness stigma as a mediator of differences in Caucasian and South Asian college students' attitudes toward psychological counseling.

Previous research has established that Asian Americans use mental health services less frequently and hold poorer attitudes toward psychological counseling than Caucasians. The authors directly tested whether stigmatizing beliefs regarding mental illness might explain such differential attitudes toward counseling in a South Asian and Caucasian student sample. Using mediation analyses, the authors examined 2 aspects of stigma posited to affect help-seeking attitudes: personal stigmatizing views and perceptions of the public's stigmatizing views directed toward persons with mental illness. First, the authors found that Caucasian (n = 74) college students revealed more positive attitudes toward counseling than did South Asian (n = 54) students. Second, in terms of mediation, increased personal stigma, but not perceived stigma, expressed by South Asians partially mediated and accounted for 32% of the observed difference in attitudes toward counseling services. These findings support a long-standing conjecture in the literature regarding the increased significance of stigma processes on disparities in majority-minority help-seeking attitudes. They also suggest that efforts to reduce disparities in attitudes toward counseling for South Asian students specifically should incorporate interventions to reduce the increased stigma expressed by this community, particularly related to a desire for social distance from persons with a mental illness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of three groups of vocationally indecisive students.

Three groups of college students with vocational problems (19 who sought professional counseling at a university counseling center, 52 who enrolled in a class in career planning, and 32 who sought no professional help) were compared on 5 measures: an attitudes toward counselors and counseling scale, a perceived usefulness of counseling item, an alternate sources of help question, the Career Decision Scale, and Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. A discriminant analysis, followed by comparison of the 3 groups on each of the 5 measures, indicated that those who used the services of a counseling center had a significantly more positive attitude toward counseling and counselors. The higher scores on levels of career indecision, which were found among the nonseekers in comparison to the class takers, were ascribed to experimental conditions. Results suggest that some previous findings that indicate attitudes may not be important in predicting help-seeking behavior may not apply to those who have vocational problems. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictors of the change in self-stigma following a single session of group counseling.

One of the major obstacles to seeking psychological help is the stigma associated with counseling and therapy. Self-stigma, the fear of losing self-respect or self-esteem as a result of seeking help, is an important factor in the help-seeking process. In the present study, college students meeting a clinical cutoff for psychological symptoms participated in 1 session of group counseling that either contained therapist self-disclosure or did not. In general, participants reported significantly less self-stigma following the session. Working alliance–bond and session depth significantly predicted the change in self-stigma. Furthermore, self-stigma (as well as bond, depth, psychological symptoms, and being female) predicted the intention to seek help following the session. Self-stigma and session depth also predicted interest in continuing with counseling. The therapist self-disclosure condition, however, had no effect on the change in self-stigma, intentions to seek help, or interest in continuing with group counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

“Boys don't cry”: Examination of the links between endorsement of masculine norms, self-stigma, and help-seeking attitudes for men from diverse backgrounds.

The role of conformity to dominant U.S. masculine norms as an antecedent to help-seeking attitudes in men has been established using convenience samples made up largely of college-age and European American males. However, the role of conformity to masculine norms on help-seeking attitudes for noncollege-age men or for men from diverse backgrounds is not well understood. To fill this gap in the literature, the present study examined the cross-cultural relevance of a mediational model of the relationships between conformity to dominant U.S. masculine norms and attitudes toward counseling through the mediator of self-stigma of seeking counseling for 4,773 men from both majority and nonmajority populations (race/ethnicity and sexual orientation). Structural equation modeling results showed that the model established using college males from majority groups (European American, heterosexual) may be applicable to a community sample of males from differing racial/ethnic groups and sexual orientations. However, some important differences in the presence and strengths of the relationships between conformity to dominant masculine norms and the other variables in the model were present across different racial/ethnic groups and sexual orientations. These findings suggest the need to pay specific theoretical and clinical attention to how conformity to dominant masculine norms and self-stigma are linked to unfavorable attitudes toward help seeking for these men, in order to encourage underserved men's help-seeking behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional openness as a predictor of college students' attitudes toward seeking psychological help.

Fear of emotions is hypothesized to be a primary reason for individuals' negative attitudes toward seeking psychological treatment. This study examined the effects of emotional openness and other potential predictors of attitudes toward seeking psychological help in a sample of 311 college students. Results of simultaneous multiple regression analyses indicated that gender (male), perception of stigma, discomfort with emotions, and lower psychological distress accounted for 25% of variance in attitudes toward seeking psychological help. The implications of the findings and recommendations for increasing the effectiveness of public education efforts are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of the Attitudes Toward Career Counseling Scale.

This article reports on 5 studies that addressed the development and validation of a measure of attitudes toward career counseling. Factor analyses of the Attitudes Toward Career Counseling Scale (ATCCS) yielded 2 factors that measured perceived value and stigma related to career counseling. Internal consistency estimates and test–retest reliability estimates across studies were moderate to high. As evidence of convergent validity, the Value and Stigma scales correlated in the expected directions with general help-seeking attitudes, decision-making styles, satisfaction with a career exploration course, and intentions of seeking help for different psychological problems including career counseling. A discussion of how this scale adds to the help-seeking literature and suggestions for future research are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural commitment and attitudes toward seeking counseling services in American Indian college students.

Counseling attitudes were assessed for American Indian college students rating themselves as either strongly or weakly committed to both Tribal and Anglo cultures. Participants strongly committed only to Tribal culture displayed more negative attitudes toward seeking counseling, recognizing a personal need for counseling, having confidence in mental health professionals, and interpersonal openness than those strongly committed only to the Anglo culture or to both cultures. Strongly committed participants demonstrated more negative attitudes toward interpersonal openness than those weakly committed to both cultures. Women showed more positive attitudes toward these issues than did men. It is recommended that counselors consider cultural commitment in understanding the hesitancy among potential American Indian clients to use conventional psychological services. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of attributional retraining on the career beliefs and career exploration behavior of college students.

Two studies were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of attributional retraining as a career counseling technique for college students. Participants who received the attributional retraining treatment viewed an 8-min videotape designed to foster internal, controllable, and unstable attributions for career decision making. Participants in the control groups viewed a similar videotape that lacked any reference to career-related attributions. Results revealed that participants who received attributional retraining exhibited significant changes in career beliefs and attributional style and engaged in significantly more career exploration behavior than the participants in the control groups. An evaluation of attributional retraining as a career-counseling technique for college students is provided, and ideas for further research are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Male gender role conflict and willingness to seek counseling: Testing a mediation model on college-aged men.

Men who experience negative consequences of their socialized gender roles--that is, have greater gender role conflict--report less positive attitudes and willingness to seeking counseling. Using structural equation modeling with data from 575 undergraduate men, the authors examined 3 mediators (self-stigma associated with seeking counseling, tendency to disclose distressing information, and attitudes toward seeking counseling) regarding the link between gender role conflict and willingness to seek counseling for psychological and interpersonal concerns. Results indicated that this link was partially mediated by these 3 factors. Men experiencing greater gender role conflict were more likely to self-stigmatize and less likely to self-disclose. High self-stigma and less disclosure then led to less positive attitudes and subsequently to less willingness to seek counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

To seek help or not to seek help: The risks of self-disclosure.

Investigations into the reasons why people seek counseling have, for the most part, focused on approach factors, those variables that are associated with a potential client's increased likelihood of seeking psychological services. The purpose of this research, however, is to explore the role of avoidance factors, those factors that are associated with a potential client's decreased likelihood of seeking services. Across 2 studies of primarily Caucasian college students (ns = 209 and 268, respectively). the results of simultaneous multiple regression analyses demonstrated that avoidance factors predict negative attitudes toward counseling as well as decreased intentions to seek counseling. Overall, results demonstrate that avoidance factors account for at least as much help-seeking variance as traditionally studied approach factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Calling and vocation in career counseling: Recommendations for promoting meaningful work.

Clients presenting with career-related concerns often desire a greater sense of meaning in their work. Therefore, incorporating the constructs of calling and vocation into the career counseling process may have utility. An overview of conceptual and empirical work on these constructs is provided. Drawing from recent integrated definitions of calling and vocation, the authors present suggestions for incorporating these constructs in practice. Counselors are encouraged to explore the extent to which clients feel a transcendent summons to a particular career, the extent to which clients’ careers bring meaning to their lives, and the extent to which clients’ careers serve society. For clients who wish to view their career as a calling or vocation, the authors provide strategies to help bring meaning and social purpose to their work lives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Role of Outcome Expectations and Attitudes on Decisions to Seek Professional Help.

Two studies examined the predictors of seeking psychological services. Study 1 examined the role of attitudes in mediating the relationship between 11 psychological factors and intent to seek help for 3 psychological problems. The results demonstrated that (a) the psychological factors and attitudes predicted 62% of the variance in intent to seek help for interpersonal problems and 18% of the variance for drug problems and (b) attitudes toward counseling mediated most of the relationships between the different psychological factors and help-seeking intent. Study 2, in turn, demonstrated that (a) anticipated outcomes of talking with a counselor were associated with the use of psychological services and (b) anticipated risks of disclosing emotions were salient for those having experienced a distressing event. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring perceptions of stigmatization by others for seeking psychological help: Reliability and validity of a new stigma scale with college students.

Fear of being stigmatized is the most cited reason why individuals avoid psychotherapy. Conceptually, this fear should be strongest when individuals consider the reactions of those they interact with. Across 5 samples, the authors developed the Perceptions of Stigmatization by Others for Seeking Help (PSOSH) scale. In Sample 1 (N = 985), the 5 items of the PSOSH were selected (α = .91). In Sample 2 (N = 842), the unidimensional factor structure of the scale was examined across a diverse sample. In Sample 3 (N = 506), concurrent validity was supported through moderate associations with 3 different stigma measures (i.e., public stigma toward counseling, r = .31; public stigma toward mental illness, r = .20; and self-stigma, r = .37). In Sample 4 (N = 144), test–retest reliability across a 3-week period was calculated (.82). Finally, in Sample 5 (N = 130), reliability (α = .78) and validity were explored with a sample experiencing symptoms of psychological distress. Relationships between variables (i.e., public stigma toward counseling, r = .31, and self-stigma, r = .40) were similar to those in previous samples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ex-offenders reentering the workforce.

Approximately 650,000 individuals will be released from incarceration in state and federal prisons this year. However, little is known about the challenges ex-offenders face when they endeavor to reenter the workforce. The authors used consensual qualitative research methods to analyze data from 2 focus groups: one for male (n=6) and another for female (n=9) nonviolent felony offenders, all of whom were receiving services at day reporting centers, which offer a nonresidential form of community corrections. Attendees discussed their reentry experiences, and 11 domains were identified, encompassing ex-offenders' needs for education, training, and practical assistance; challenges in obtaining and maintaining a job; and available support, including personal networks and resources from the correctional system. Findings suggest that counseling professionals should attend to ex-offenders' social networks, including social aspects of the workplace, as such networks can offer support or represent a liability for individuals in transition. Substance abuse issues impact ex-offenders' social viability as well as their career-related reentry attempts. Finally, career development practitioners should understand the internal and external impacts of the stigma associated with incarceration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internalized stigma among sexual minority adults: Insights from a social psychological perspective.

This article describes a social psychological framework for understanding sexual stigma, and it reports data on sexual minority individuals' stigma-related experiences. The framework distinguishes between stigma's manifestations in society's institutions (heterosexism) and among individuals. The latter include enacted sexual stigma (overt negative actions against sexual minorities, such as hate crimes), felt sexual stigma (expectations about the circumstances in which sexual stigma will be enacted), and internalized sexual stigma (personal acceptance of sexual stigma as part of one's value system and self-concept). Drawing from previous research on internalized sexual stigma among heterosexuals (i.e., sexual prejudice), the article considers possible parallels in how sexual minorities experience internalized sexual stigma (i.e., self-stigma, or negative attitudes toward the self). Data are presented from a community sample of lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults (N = 2,259) to illustrate the model's utility for generating and testing hypotheses concerning self-stigma. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes toward professional counseling among Asian-American college students: Acculturation, conceptions of mental illness, and loss of face.

The present study attempted to examine the influence of culture-bound barriers such as acculturation status, loss of face, and conception of mental health on the attitudes of Asian American college students (n = 134) toward seeking professional psychological help. An adapted Acculturation Attitude Scale (AAS; U. Kim, 1988), Zane's (1991) Loss of Face Scale (LOFS), a 10-factor Conception of Mental Health Scale (CMHS; Nunnally, 1961), and a modified version of the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale (ATSPPHS) with four subscales (Fischer & Turner, 1970) were used in this study. Results support the hypothesis that acculturation and conceptions of mental health were significantly correlated with attitudes toward mental health services. Loss of face was also significantly correlated with attitudes of being open to professional counseling. Implications for mental health professionals working with Asian Americans are highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acculturation, enculturation, and Asian American college students' mental health and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help.

In the present study, we tested a theoretically and empirically derived partially indirect effects acculturation and enculturation model of Asian American college students' mental health and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. Latent variable path analysis with 296 self-identified Asian American college students supported the partially indirect effects model and demonstrated the ways in which behavioral acculturation, behavioral enculturation, values acculturation, values enculturation, and acculturation gap family conflict related to mental health and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help directly and indirectly through acculturative stress. We also tested a generational status moderator hypothesis to determine whether differences in model-implied relationships emerged across U.S.- (n = 185) and foreign-born (n = 107) participants. Consistent with this hypothesis, statistically significant differences in structural coefficients emerged across generational status. Limitations, future directions for research, and counseling implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselors' judgments of the quality of the prescreening stage of the career decision-making process.

The first stage of the career decision-making process is prescreening, which aims at locating promising alternatives deserving further exploration. J. L. Holland's (1997) concepts of differentiation, consistency, and coherence were adapted to cases in which an individual's career-related preferences, which serve as guidelines for locating such promising alternatives, are expressed in many work aspects (e.g., length of training, income, work environment) and not merely in terms of vocational interests. The assumption was that, as for interests, the optimal starting point is crystallized preferences. Judgments of 29 career counseling psychologists and 48 counseling graduate students who were presented with information about the career-related preferences of 18 hypothetical clients supported the hypotheses that crystallized preferences are differentiated, that they are consistent, and that they are coherent. The judgments of these experts on 9 lists of occupations supported the hypothesis that the desirable outcome of the prescreening stage is a concise and homogeneous list of promising alternatives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adherence to Asian and European American cultural values and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help among Asian American college students.

Possible relations among enculturation and acculturation to cultural values and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help were examined among 146 Asian American college students. In addition, possible relations between various dimensions of Asian values and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help were examined. As hypothesized, the results indicated a significant inverse relation between enculturation to Asian values and professional help-seeking attitudes, above and beyond that of the association with having previous counseling experience. Although bivariate correlational results suggested possible inverse relations between the Asian values dimensions of collectivism, emotional self-control, and humility and professional help-seeking attitudes, these associations were not confirmed with a hierarchical multiple regression model. Contrary to expectation, a significant relation was not observed between values acculturation and professional help-seeking attitudes. Also, the interaction between enculturation and acculturation to cultural values was not significantly predictive of professional help-seeking attitudes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)